Image Credits

Ivonne Audirac; Amber B. Raley; Jenifer Reiner; Soheil Sharifi-Asl

Image Credits

This work contains copyrighted material the use of which has not always been specifically authorized by the copyright owners. The creators of this OER believe in good faith that reuse of these materials constitutes a “fair use” as described in Section 107 of the Copyright Act. Downstream users who wish to use copyrighted material from this resource for purposes beyond those authorized by the fair use doctrine should obtain permission from the copyright owner(s) of the original content.

Unless noted below, all figures used in the text are the intellectual property of the content creators and are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

CHAPTER 1

Figure 1.1 Surface transportation funding flows among levels of government. Adapted from “Funding Challenges in Highway and Transit: A Federal-state-local Analysis,” by P. Oliff, 2015, (https://www.pewtrusts.org). In the public domain.
Figure 1.2 Causes of traffic congestion. From“Traffic Congestion and Reliability: Linking Solutions to Problems,” by Cambridge Systematics, Inc. with Texas Transportation Institute, 2004, (https://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/congestion_report/). In the public domain.
Figure 1.3 Congestion resulting from a physical/operational bottleneck. From “A Survey of Road Traffic Congestion Measures Towards a Sustainable and Resilient Transportation System,” by Afrin & Yodo, 2020, Sustainability, 12(11) p. 4460. Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0 )
Figure 1.4 Bottleneck caused by construction. From Smurrayinchester (2017), Wikipedia.org. Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0
Figure 1.5 How far a determined motorist can travel in an hour away from a specific city center at different traffic times. From D Magazine, 2017, (https://www.dmagazine.com/frontburner/2017/08/dallas-rush-hour-traffic/). Copyright 2017, D Magazine Partners.
Figure 1.6 New York metropolitan region, average traffic speed vs. population density. Adapted by authors from “Road Traffic Congestion: A Concise Guide,” (1st ed., 2015, p. 44), by Falcocchio & Levinson, 2015, New York: Springer International Publishing. Copyright 2015 by Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-15165-6
Figure 1.7 Factors affecting trip length, traffic congestion, and trip time. Figure by authors.
Figure 1.8 Average vehicle trip length as a function of population density.
Adapted from “Chapter 15: Land use and site design, Table 15-5: Average daily travel per person in the United States by population density and mode, 1990 NPTS Survey,” by Kuzmyak J R et al., in Transit Cooperative Research Program, (Eds.), “Traveler response to transportation system changes,” (p. 15-21), 2003, Washington, D.C.: Transportation Research Board. Copyright 2003 by TRB, https://trb.org/publications/tcrp/tcrp_rpt_95c15.pdf.
Figure 1.9 Factors affecting trip mobility in urban areas. Figure created by authors.
Figure 1.10 Factors impacting traveler mobility. Figure created by authors based on Falcocchio & Levinson, 2015, p. 120.
Figure 1.11 Trip mobility of selected modes and trip time. From “Road Traffic Congestion: A Concise Guide,” (1st ed. 2015, p. 125), by Falcocchio & Levinson, 2015, New York: Springer International
Figure 1.12 Person- and place-based accessibility. Figure created by authors.
Figure 1.13 Spatial accessibility in San Francisco by foot and by car within a 15-minute travel budget. Figure by authors using Google Maps.
Figure 1.14 Place-based accessibility of low-income, minority groups using public transit to reach places with low-skill jobs in the DFW area from 9 am to 10 am, in 2019. Courtesy of S. Sharifiasl and S. Kharel, map creators.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Process for developing transportation projects. Adapted from “Transportation Planning Process: Key Issues for transportation decision-makers, officials and staff,” by Transportation Planning Capacity Building Program, 2018 (https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/publications/briefing_book/fhwahep18015.pdf). In the public domain.
Figure 2.2 The transportation planning process. From “The Transportation Planning Process Key Issues” by Transportation Planning Capacity Building Program, 2018, n.p. (https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/publications/briefing_book/fhwahep18015.pdf). In the public domain.
Figure 2.3 Network planning: Strategic direction. Adapted from “Transportation planning process: Key Issues for transportation decision-makers, officials and staff,” by FHWA and FTA, 2018 (https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/publications/briefing_book/index_image021.png). In the public domain.
Figure 2.4 Sample of Texas statewide goals, measures, and targets. From “Texas Transportation Plan 2050,” by Texas Department of Transportation, 2024 (https://www.txdot.gov/projects/planning/ttp.html) p. 4. In the public domain.
Figure 2.5 Contributors to the transportation planning process. Adapted from ”All About Transportation,” by PlanRVA.org, 2019 (https://planrva.org/transportation/what-is-transportation-planning). In the public domain.
Figure 2.6 Transportation inputs, outputs, and outcomes. Adapted from “Transportation Inputs Outputs” by D. Levinson, 2020. Commons.wikimedia.com (https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TransportationInputsOutputs.png&oldid=495382280). CC-BY-3.
Figure 2.7 Network Planning: Analysis. Adapted from “Transportation Planning Process: Key Issues for transportation decision makers, officials, and staff,” by FHWA and FTA, 2018 (https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/publications/briefing_book/index_image021.png). In the public domain.
Figure 2.8 PTV VISSIM 11 software showing highway and rapid transit elements- Luxembourg example. Screenshot by PTV AG (2020), Wikipedia (https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/09/VISSIM_11_screenshot_-_Luxembourg_Example.png). In the public domain.
Figure 2.9 Chicago, different roads modeled by TRANSIMS software program at Argonne National Laboratory’s Transportation Research and Analysis Computing Center. Flicker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 https://www.flickr.com/photos/argonne/3467719301
Figure 2.10 Transportation modeling 101. Adapted by authors from “101 Transportation Modeling. Explaining the Mystery of The Black Box – Infographic,” by Thurston Regional Planning Council, Olympia, WA, 2015.
Figure 2.11 FSM model steps and input and output data. Image by authors based on Travel Demand Forecasting: Parameters and Techniques, NCHRP Report 716, 2012, Washington, DC: National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/14665/travel-demand-forecasting-parameters-and-techniques

CHAPTER 3

Figure 3.1 Process for developing transportation projects. Adapted from “Transportation Planning Process: Key Issues for transportation decision-makers, officials and staff,” by Transportation Planning Capacity Building Program, 2018 (https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/publications/briefing_book/index_image021.png). In the public domain.
Figure 3.2 Network Planning – Analysis. Adapted from “Transportation Planning Process: Key Issues for transportation decision makers, officials and staff,” by FHWA and FTA, 2018 (https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/publications/briefing_book/index_image021.png). In the public domain.
Figure 3.3 City of Byran CIP ranking system. From the City of Bryan, Texas (https://docs.bryantx.gov/CIP/future_CIP/cip_ranking_system_chart1.pdf). In the public domain.
Figure 3.4 City of Fairbanks, North Star Borough CIP process. From City of Fairbanks, Alaska (https://www.fnsb.gov/DocumentCenter/View/7557/CIP-Process-PDF?bidId=) and (https://youtu.be/tOEQAND966o?feature=shared). In the public domain.
Figure 3.5 2023-2027 Southwest Washington Regional Transportation Council. From 2023-2027 Southwest Washington Regional TIP. (https://rtc.wa.gov/programs/tip/docs/ProgrammingGuidebook20230207.pdf) In the public domain.
Figure 3.6 Project selection process From Smart Scale, 2024. (https://smartscale.virginia.gov/how-it-works/). Copyright 2024 Smart Scale.
Figure 3.7 Key activities to create the Transportation Improvement Program (TIP). Adapted from “Plan RVA 2017-2027 TIP,” by RVA, 2022. Retrieved from https://planrva.org/transportation/tip/. In the public domain.
Figure 3.8 Transportation project prioritization process. Adapted from “Transportation Decision Making: Principles of Project Evaluation and Programming,” by K. C. Sinha and S. Labi, (p. 14), 2007.
Figure 3.9 Example of TXDOT project selection methodology. From “TXDOT FY 2023-26 Statewide Improvement Program (p.11),” by TXDOT, 2022 (https://ftp.txdot.gov/pub/txdot/tpp/stip/2023-2026/fy23-26-stip-introduction.pdf). In the public domain.
Figure 3.10 Funding Transportation. From USDOT Transportation Toolkit (p. 30), 2017 (https://www.transportation.gov/sites/dot.gov/files/docs/ToolkitFinal2017.pdf). In the public domain.
Figure 3.11 How to read the TIP project lists. From Pima Association of Governments FY 2025-2029 Transportation Improvement Program, (p. 62), 2024 (https://pagregion.com/wp-content/docs/pag/2024/04/FY-2025-FY-2029-Draft-TIP-Document.pdf). In the public domain.
Figure 3.12 BIL Transportation funding. From “2022 Equity Action Plan (p. 9),” by USDOT, 2022, (https://www.transportation.gov/sites/dot.gov/files/2022-04/Equity_Action_Plan.pdf). In the public domain.
Figure 3.13 NOFO by Category. From “BIL Launchpad,” by USDOT, retrieved July 2024. (https://billaunchpad.com/nofo). In the public domain.
Figure 3.14 Opportunities to influence transportation decisions. From USDOT Funding transportation toolkit, 2023, p. 24. (https://www.transportation.gov/sites/dot.gov/files/docs/ToolkitFinal2017.pdf). In the public domain.
Figure 3.15 Network Planning – Analysis. Adapted from “Transportation Planning Process: Key Issues for transportation decision makers, officials and staff,” by FHWA and FTA, 2018 (https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/publications/briefing_book/index_image021.png). In the public domain.
Figure 3.16 The 3E triangle of overall goals is the foundation for evaluation. Image by authors adapted from “Transportation Decision Making: Principles of Project Evaluation and Programming,” by K. C. Sinha and S. Labi, 2007.
Figure 3.17 FHWA Online Planning and Equity Tool. From “Online GIS Planning and Equity Tool ,” by USDOT, 2024, (https://usdot.maps.arcgis.com/apps/webappviewer/index.html?id=af1a590b45444e768402714efb148805). In the public domain.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 FHWA Title VI Program coverage. From “Environmental justice: The new normal for transportation,” by Kragh et al., 2016, Public Roads, 79(5), n.p. In the public domain. https://highways.dot.gov/public-roads/marchapril-2016/environmental-justice-new-normal-transportation.
Figure 4.2 NCTCOG TAIT dashboard. From Transit Accessibility Improvement Tool by NCTCOG, 2024. Retrieved fromhttps://nctcoggis.maps.arcgis.com/apps/webappviewer/index.html?id=cb7420fa96a54b95a6492aeae27075aa
Figure 4.3 Updated 1969 Arnstein ladder of citizen participation to reflect US DOT requirement for meaningful public involvement. Image created by authors based on DuLithgow, Ladder of citizen participation, Sherry Arnstein. CC BY 3.0.
Figure 4.4 Three-step meaningful public involvement to meet the needs of underserved communities. Image created by authors based on Karner and Marcantonio (2018).
Figure 4.5 Meaningful public involvement in planning, programming, and project evaluation. Image created by author based on FHWA (2018).
Figure 4.6 Features of meaningful public involvement. From “Promising Practices for Meaningful Public Involvement in Transportation Decision-Making,” by USDOT, 2023, p. 5. (https://www.transportation.gov/public-involvement). In the public domain.

CHAPTER 5

Figure 5.1 Pros and cons of freight transportation modes. By Authors adapted from “An Introduction to Sustainable Transportation: Policy, Planning and Implementation (2nd ed.),” by P. L. Schiller and J. Kenworthy, 2017, (https://doi-org.10.4324/9781315644486) and “Transportation Mode Comparison,” by Union Pacific, 2023, (https://www.up.com/customers/track-record/tr091019-transportation-modes-all.htm).
Figure 5.2 Multimodal transportation. By Authors adapted from “Multimodal Integration of Transport System,” by Kochi Metro Rail, 2017, February 25, https://x.com/metrorailkochi/status/835370867643174912
Figure 5.3 Modal split in the US from 2010-2021. By Authors. From data in “Transportation Statistics Annual Report 2021,” by U.S. Department of Transportation Office of the Secretary of Transportation Bureau of Transportation Statistics. (https://www.bts.gov/sites/bts.dot.gov/files/2022-01/TSAR_FULL%20BOOK-12-31-2021.pdf). Public Domain.
Figure 5.4 Factors affecting the choice of active travel modes. Adapted from “Do accessibility and clustering affect active travel behavior in Salt Lake City,” by Wang, et al., 2001. (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2020.102655).
Figure 5.5 Transit Ridership (Unlinked Passenger Trips) in the United States 2000 – 2021. From “Public Transportation Ridership: Implications of Recent Trends for Federal Policy,” 2022 by Congressional Research Service (https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47302). Public Domain.
Figure 5.6 Ridership Trends in top 10 Markets in the United States 2009 – 2019 Unlinked Passenger Trips by Urbanized Area.From “Public Transportation Ridership: Implications of Recent Trends for Federal Policy,” 2022 by Congressional Research Service (https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47302) Public Domain.
Figure 5.7 Number of Intermodal facilities in the US. From “Transportation Statistics Annual Report (TSAR),” by United States Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, 2023, p. 1-38 (https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/view/dot/72943). Public Domain.
Figure 5.8 Salesforce Transit Center, San Francisco. From “Salesforce Transit Center main entrance”2018, by Fullmetal2887, (https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=71708702) CC BY-SA 4.0.
Figure 5.9 Salesforce Transit Center, San Francisco. From “Muni route 5 trolleybus at Transbay Transit Center, September 2019” 2019 by Fullmetal2887, ( https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=85523551) CC BY-SA 4.0.
Figure 5.10 Salesforce Transit Center, San Francisco. From “Salesforce Transit Center bus deck” 2019 by Muni Trolley Route 5. By 2019 by Fullmetal2887, (https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=71708699) CC BY-SA 4.0.
Figure 5.10 Alliance, Texas – Intermodal Port. From “Economic Benefits,” 2024 by Alliance Texas (https://www.alliancetexas.com/Portals/_default/skins/alliancetexas/images/global-logistics-hub/economic-benefits-full.png). Copyright 2024 Hillwood.
Figure 5.11 Alliance, Texas – Logistics District. From “Alliance Westport,” 2024, (https://www.alliancetexas.com/Portals/0/Docs/Alliance%20Westport.pdf). Copyright 2024 Hillwood.
Figure 5.12a On-demand transit services. From” King County Metro Flex,” by King County, Washington, 2024, Metro Flex (https://kingcounty.gov/en/dept/metro/travel-options/metro-flex). Public Domain.
Figure 5.12b On-demand transit services. From” Arlington, TX, (https://city.ridewithvia.com/arlington). Public Domain.

CHAPTER 6

Figure 6.1 Access and mobility. From Image by FHWA Functional Classification Guidelines, 1989, Office of Planning, Federal Highway Administration, US Department of Transportation. https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation/pubs/hf/pl10023/fig1_1fig1_2.cfm
Figure 6.2A Functional Classification. Image A by Wisconsin Department of Transportation https://wisconsindot.gov/Pages/doing-bus/real-estate/access-mgmt/am-principles.aspx
Figure 6.2B Functional Classification. Image A by Wisconsin Department of Transportation https://wisconsindot.gov/Pages/doing-bus/real-estate/access-mgmt/am-principles.aspx; Image B by Virginia Department of Transportation https://166.67.200.76/projects/fxn_class/home.asp
Figure 6.3 The 15-minute city framework. From Moreno et al., 2021, CC BY 4.0. Introducing the “15-Minute City”: Sustainability, Resilience and Place Identity in Future Post-Pandemic Cities. Smart Cities 2021, 4, 93–111. https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities4010006
Figure 6.4 Kalamazoo is a walkable community. Image by Michigan Municipal League. Flicker, CC BY-NC-ND.2 https://www.flickr.com/photos/michigancommunities/9349336073
Figure 6.5 Improving regional accessibility. Aerial view of progress of future SR 520 freeway lid and Montlake Boulevard Interchange, Montlake, WA. Image by Washington State Department of Transportation, 2021 CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 https://www.flickr.com/photos/wsdot/51682347963
Figure 6. 6 Transportation-land use dynamics and feedback cycle. Image adapted by authors from Giuliano, 2004, p. 239 in Land use impacts of transportation investments, pp. 237-273 in S. Hanson and G. Giuliano (Eds.), The geography of urban transportation, third edition, Guildford Press and Bertolini, 2012, Integrating mobility and urban development agendas. The Planning Review, 48(1), 16–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/02513625.2012.702956
Figure 6.7 ALDI grocery stores within 20 minutes of a residential area near the University of Texas Arlington during clear, non-pick-time traffic road conditions. Image by authors based on a Google Map and driving travel times. Note: Numbers represent minutes.
Figure 6.8 Accessibility before and after a network improvement. Image adapted by authors from Giuliano 2004, p. 240, Land use impacts of transportation investments, in S. Hanson and G. Giuliano (Eds.), The geography of urban transportation, third edition, Guildford Press.
Figure 6.9 Trade area overlap of all types of Walmart stores in the DFW area. Image by A.P. Ostrander, 2011. The expansion of retail chain: An analysis of Wal-Mart locations in the United States, Geography MS Thesis, University of North Texas. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc68027/m2/1/high_res_d/thesis.pdf
Figure 6.10 A multi-tenant sign next to Interstate 10 westbound in Indio, California. Image by Coolcaesar, 2022. “As of 2022, all tenants listed on the sign except WinCo Foods are national chains commonly found in power centers throughout the United States. The main exception, WinCo Foods, is a regional supermarket chain found primarily in the western United States” Coolcaesar, 2022, CC BY-SA 4.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Indio_Towne_Center_Roadside_Sign.jpg#/media/File:Indio_Towne_Center_Roadside_Sign.jpg
Figure 6.11 Visions and patterns of urban transport. From Filippi (2024) based on Dalkmann, H. and Sakamoto, K. (2006). Transport: Investing in Energy and Resource Efficiency. Green Economy Report; UNEP: Nairobi, Kenya, UITP: Brussels, Belgium.
Figure 6.12 Modal share of EU member countries by Eurostat, 2024. From European Commission. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Passenger_mobility_statistics#Travel_mode
Figure 6.13 Current mobility and accessibility transportation models by Filippi (2024). From Visions, paradigms, and anomalies of urban transport. Future Transportation, 4 (3): 938-967. https://doi.org/10.3390/futuretransp4030045, Open access.

CHAPTER 7

Figure 7.1 History of the Federal Transit Program. From ”FHWA Status of the Nation’s Highways, Bridges, and Transit Conditions and Performance” U. S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration 2019 (https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/23cpr/). Public Domain.
Figure 7.2 Public Transportation Ridership as a Share of the Same Period in 2019 (Pre-Pandemic) APTA Ridership Trends Dashboard July 2022 – September 2022. From ”APTA Public Transportation Ridership Update,” by M. Dickens, & D. Kahana, 2022, September, American Public Transportation Association (APTA). (https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-POLICY-BRIEF-Transit-Ridership-09.28.2022.pdf). Copyright 2024 by APTA.
Figure 7.3 Public Transit Service Metrics (2000 – 2020). From “APTA 2022 Transportation Fact Book by American Public Transportation Association,” January 2023, 73rd edition, p. 14. (https://www.apta.com/research-technical-resources/transit-statistics/public-transportation-fact-book/). Copyright 2024 APTA
Figure 7.4 2020 Modal Shares of Transit Service Provided and Utilized 2021
Note “Other” includes trolleybus, vanpool, ferryboat, and other fixed-guideway services.
From “Different Modes Serve Different Purposes” in APTA 2022 Transportation fact book, APTA, 2023, p. 14. (https://www.apta.com/research-technical-resources/transit-statistics/public-transportation-fact-book/). Copyright 2024 APTA Note “Other” includes trolleybus, vanpool, ferryboat, and other fixed-guideway services.
Figure 7.5 Sustainable Transportation. Author image
Figure 7.6 EPA Smart Growth Strategies. Image by authors.
Figure 7.7 Transit-rich neighborhoods and resident age, 2009. From “A taste for transit? Analyzing public transit use trends among youth,” by A. E. Brown, E. Blumenberg, B. D. Taylor, K. Ralph, & C. T. Voulgaris, 2016 Journal of Public Transportation, 19(1). https://doi.org/10.5038/2375-0901.19.1.4 CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.
Figure 7.8 Forces shaping transit and land-development integration. Author image. Adapted from Suzuki, Cervero and Iuchi (2013, p. 43)
Figure 7.9 A Clino line streetcar in St. Charles Street, New Orleans Central Business District, 1920. From “Streetcars in New Orleans,” 2011 in Wikipedia. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streetcars_in_New_Orleans#/media/File:St_Charles_Avenue_down_from_Poydras_1920.jpg). Public Domain.
Figure 7.10 Ebenezer Howard, To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform 1898. From “Garden City Movement,” 2016 in Wikipedia. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden_city_movement#/media/) Public Domain.
Figure 7.11 Illustration of transit-oriented development (TOD) based on Calthorpe 1993. From “Transit-Oriented Development in Doha: The Case of the Al Sadd Neighborhood and Hamad Hospital Metro Station,” by Nafi, et al., 2021 (https://doi.org/10.3390/designs5040061). CC-BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
Media 7.1 FTA History. usdotfta. (2023, August 29). FTA history part 1 [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uOI79eLD6QA
Media 7.2 TED Archive. (2018, May 21). Transforming transport with shared mobility: Sandra Phillips [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2qaWTeJ_AFY
Media 7.3 UC Davis Institute of Transportation Studies. (2020, November 6). The effects of ride hailing on urban transportation [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mMLlpNszO6E
Media 7.4 Planetizen Courses. (2021, January 29). What is transit oriented development? [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R84ABNRnQpU
Media 7.5 City Beautiful. (2022, April 30). Transit Oriented Development, Explained [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RYsqWIGyRVk
Media 7.6 UN-Habitat Worldwise. (2014, April 22). Robert Cervero, Transforming Cities with Transit [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rgd8tWIMhbs
Media 7.7 Braustin Homes. (2022, January 26). Transit Oriented Development with Peter Calthorpe: Double Wide Dudes podcast. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UKeaifCqdTw

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Travel time 1800-30 US Census. Adapted from “Transportation Revolution,” by D. Allosso in American Environmental History. (https://mlpp.pressbooks.pub/americanenvironmentalhistory/chapter/chapter-6-transportation-revolution/). Adapted by Dan Allosso from US Census licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License (CC-BY-SA-NC). Note. The contour lines of the map show the boundaries reachable from New York City within the indicated transportation times.
Figure 8.2 Rates of travel 1857 US Census. Adapted from “Transportation Revolution,” by D. Allosso in American Environmental History. (https://mlpp.pressbooks.pub/americanenvironmentalhistory/chapter/chapter-6-transportation-revolution/). Adapted by Dan Allosso from US Census licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License (CC-BY-SA-NC).
Figure 8.3. A Basic version of the Hoyt Sector model. From “Sector Model” 16 February 2024 in Wikipedia. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sector_model). Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0 (CC-BY-SA).
Figure 8.4 Chauncy Harris and Edward L. Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model of Urban Structure. Adapted from “Multiple nuclei model” 28 March 2024 in Wikipedia. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_nuclei_model). Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0 (CC-BY-SA).
Figure 8.5 Map of scheduled airline traffic around the world, circa June 2009. Contains 54317 routes, rendered at 25% transparency. Base map is NASA Blue Marble (PD) plus airports from file: World-airport-map-2008.png, route data is from Airline Route Mapper, rendering by OpenFlights (Open Database License). From “World-airline-route map” by Jpatokal. 26 June 2009 in Wikipedia (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World-airline-routemap-2009.png). Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0 (CC-BY-SA).
Figure 8.6 The Aerotropolis Model by John Kasarda. From The Aerotropolis http://aerotropolis.com/index.php/about/. Copyright Dr. John D. Kasarda.
Figure 8.7 Atlanta Aerotropolis (2016). From The Aerotropolis Atlanta Blueprint: A Vision and Strategy for the Atlanta Region by Atlanta Regional Commission (ARC) and Aerotropolis Atlanta Alliance (AAA). https://aeroatl.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/aerotropolis-atlanta-blueprint-final.pdf In the Public Domain.
Figure 8.8 Shared mobility services. From “Shared Mobility: Current Practices and Guiding Principles” S. Shaheen, A. Cohen, & I. Zohdy, 2016, FHWA-HOP-16-022 Report (https://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/fhwahop16022/fhwahop16022.pdf). In the Public Domain.
Figure 8.9 The Futurama exhibit was created by Norman Bel Geddes for the 1939 World’s Fair in New York City. Futurama, which was sponsored by General Motors, portrayed a vision of the city for 1960, where traffic congestion and automobile collisions would be eliminated. From Futurama diorama detail by Richard Garrison, 1939, by Philafrenzy, 2018. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Futurama_diorama_detail.jpg In the Public Domain.
Figure 8.
10 Smart City dimensions. Image by authors.
Media 8.1 Sidewalk Labs Toronto – A Brief History 3:41 by Raymond Wong –a Toronto citizen. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nmjtf9v-YFQ
Media 8.2 IBM (2022, June 18). Smart City. [Video]. Vimeo. https://vimeo.com/721670104
Media 8.3 IBM (2011, August 12). Smarter Cities: Portland, Oregon. [Video.] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uBYsSFbBeR4&t=3s

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Representations of sustainability. From “Three Pillars of Sustainability: In Search of Conceptual Origins” (p. 682), 2019, by Purvis, B., Mao, Y. & Robinson, D. Sustainability Science 14, 681–695. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-018-0627-5 retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:11625_2018_627_Fig1_HTML.webp Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license.
Figure 9.2 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). From “Sustainable Development” (n.p.), 2023 by United Nations https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment Note: The content of this publication has not been approved by the United Nations and does not reflect the views of the United Nations or its officials or Member States.
Figure 9.3a EU Progress Towards SDGs, Highlight on SDG 11. Adapted from “United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 11.2 Sustainable Transport,” 2021 by European Union, https://knowsdgs.jrc.ec.europa.eu/sdg/11 In the public domain.
Figure 9.3b EU Progress Towards SDGs, Highlight on SDG 11. Adapted from “SDGs and Me Towards Sustainable Cities and Communities,” 2023 by European Union, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/4187653/16179947/SDG-11-09102023.png/859ba037-9b8b-0f15-d519-f29e01f59d1b?t=1696836151643 In the public domain.
Figure 9.5c EU Progress Towards SDGs, Highlight on SDG 11. Adapted from “Sustainable Development in the European Union: Monitoring Report on Progress towards the SDGs in an EU Context” (n.p.), 2023 by European Union, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-flagship-publications/w/ks-04-23-184 “United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 11.2 Sustainable Transport,” 2021 by European Union, https://knowsdgs.jrc.ec.europa.eu/sdg/11 “SDGs & Me: Towards Sustainable Cities and Communities,” 2023 by European Union, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/4187653/16179947/SDG-11-09102023.png/859ba037-9b8b-0f15-d519-f29e01f59d1b?t=1696836151643
Figure 9.4 Social Sustainability Framework. Adapted from “Justice as parity of participation: Enhancing Arnstein’s ladder through Fraser’s justice framework,” 2019 by Blue, G., Rosol, M., & Fast, V. Journal of the American Planning Association, 85(3), 363-376. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2019.1619476
Figure 9.5 Sustainable Transport Goals. From “Well Measured: Developing Indicators for Sustainable and Livable Transport Planning” (p. 250), by T. Litman, 2016, Victoria Transport Policy Institute. Copyright 2012 Todd Alexander Litman. Used with permission of the author.
Figure 9.6 2022 end-use sector emissions of CO2 from fossil fuel combustion. EPA (2024), Figure ES-6, p. 46. https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2024-04/us-ghg-inventory-2024-main-text_04-18-2024.pdf In the public domain. Note: Transportation End-Use Sector.
Figure 9.7 U.S. Greenhouse gas emissions allocated to economic sectors. EPA (2024), Figure ES-13, p. 57. https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2024-04/us-ghg-inventory-2024-main-text_04-18-2024.pdf In the public domain. Note: Emissions from transportation activities accounted for the largest portion (28.4 percent) of total gross U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in 2022.
Figure 9.8 Average carbon dioxide emissions per passenger mile, 2019 by US Congressional Budget Office (CBO, 2022) https://www.cbo.gov/publication/58861 In the public domain. Note: Carbon dioxide emissions per passenger-mile from travel by personal vehicles are higher on a per-mile basis than emissions from other forms of passenger travel. Heavy- and light-rail transit produce relatively few emissions per passenger-mile.
Figure 9.9 Average carbon dioxide emissions per Ton-Mile of freight by mode of transportation, 2019 by US Congressional Budget Office (CBO, 2022) https://www.cbo.gov/publication/58861 In the public domain. Note: Per ton-mile, emissions from trucking, the predominant mode of freight transportation, were eight times those from rail. And emissions per ton-mile from air cargo were six times those from trucks.
Figure 9.10 Passenger Miles Traveled on Different Transportation Modes in 2019. From “Travel and Tourism: DOT Should Improve Strategic Planning and Data Collection” (n.p.), 2023 by GAO, GAO-23-105967. https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-23-105967 Note: One passenger-mile is equal to one passenger carried one mile. For example, 3 passengers carried 5 miles would equal 15 passenger miles.
Figure 9.11 A circle graphic illustrates the balance between different elements, including justice and equity, corridor and community, demand and supply, public and residential. EVI-Equity analyzes the various elements needed for a just and equitable charging infrastructure. Image by NREL (2024). https://www.nrel.gov/transportation/evi-equity.html In the public domain.
Figure 9.12 Clean Cities and Communities Coalition locations. Image by NREL, in the public domain. https://cleancities.energy.gov/coalitions/locations/ Note: More than 75 Clean Cities and Communities coalitions foster the nation’s economic, environmental, and energy security by working locally to advance affordable, domestic transportation fuels, energy efficient mobility systems, and other fuel-saving technologies and practices. Most coalitions are located in major metropolitan areas. Find your local coalition.
Figure 9.13 Transportation decarbonization strategies. From “U.S. National Blueprint for Transportation Decarbonization: A Joint Strategy to Transform Transportation” (p. 4), 2024, U. S. DOE, DOT EPA, and HUD. https://www.transportation.gov/priorities/climate-and-sustainability/us-national-blueprint-transportation-decarbonization
Figure 9.14 The six clusters of GND policy components. Image by Green and Healy (2022), https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590332222002202#mmc1 CC BY 4.0. Note: The first three clusters of GND policy components, clockwise from ‘‘Sustainable Social Provisioning Policies,’’ are distinctive of GND programs. The remaining three clusters cover areas closer to the mainstream concerns of the carbon-centric paradigm.
Media 9.1 The seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). From United Nations. (2018, April 20). Do you know all 17 SDGs? [Video]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0XTBYMfZyrM&t=3s In the public domain.
Media 9.2 Bridging the divide: Connecting people to opportunity (USDOT 2016). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wh7I-j9MTpo
Media 9.3 National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) Sustainable Mobility: The transportation world beyond tomorrow is here today! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P_TH9ZuxX4o
Media 9.4 Disproportionate burden from air pollution. From Muijen, A. (2019, March 11). Black and Hispanic minorities in the U.S. bear a disproportionate burden from air pollution [Video]. (CC_BY). https://youtu.be/7S8CXEVjIh4?si=wwtCZZDQpb2g3vYi
Media 9.5 The U.S. National Blueprint for Transportation Decarbonization, U.S. Department of Energy (2023). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RKplZwqFwVk In the public domain.

CHAPTER 10

Figure 10.1 Access-mobility framework to identify city residents under-served by transportation. From “From mobility to access for all: Expanding urban transportation choices in the Global South,” by C. Venter, A. Mahendra, & D. Hidalgo. 2019, p. 17. World Resources Institute. https://www.sipotra.it/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/From-Mobility-to-Access-for-All-Expanding-Urban-Transportation-Choices-in-the-Global-South.pdf. CC-BY https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Figure 10.3 People riding a Cairo Transport Authority bus. From Cairo Transport Authority, by Hancock10, 2010 (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cairo_Transport_Authority.JPG). CC-BY.
Figure 10.4 View from Ikoyi, an upper-class suburb of the sprawling megacity of Lagos, Nigeria. Beyond the Lagoon is Victoria Island, and beyond the island, the new city being built and called Eko Atlantic City, by Reginald Bassey, 2019 (https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=79988917) CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en
Figure 10.5 Marina station of Lagos’ light rail system, by FrankvEck, 2023 (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Marina-station-lagos.jpg) CC BY-SA 4.0. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en
Figure 10.6 Downtown Medellin, Colombia. by Ephren23, 2011 (https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=128128806) CC BY-SA 4.0. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en
Figure 10.7 Medellin’s Metrocable designed to reach low-income suburban areas on the hills, by Jorge Lascar, 2010 (https://www.flickr.com/photos/jlascar/5083096780) CC BY-NC-ND 2.0. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/deed.en Note: The cable lines connect as feeders to Medellin’s Metro system.
Figure 10.8 Medellin’s Metro, by Guia de Viajes Oficial de Medellin, 2007 (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Metro_de_Medell%C3%ADn,_Colombia.jpg) CC BY-NC-ND 2.0. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/deed.en
Figure 10.9 Panorama of Hanoi with two buildings Keangnam 72 and Lotte Tower. The Nhat Tan Bridge is part of a six-lane highway linking the city to Hanoi’s international airport, by NKSTTSSHNVN, 2021 (https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=117043700) CC BY-SA 4.0. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en
Figure 10.10 Private vehicles in Hanoi 2000 to 2010. From “Towards the Development of Quality Standards for Public Transport Service in Developing Countries: Analysis of Public Transport Users’ Behavior,” by A. M. Ngoc, K. V. Hung, and V. A. Tuan, 2017, Transportation Research Procedia, 25, pp. 4560-4579. (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2017.05.354). CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 Deed | Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 International | Creative Commons
Figure 10.11 Bicycles still a popular mode of transportation in 2009 Hanoi, though motorcycles (MC) have the greatest utilization. From “Towards the Development of Quality Standards for Public Transport Service in Developing Countries: Analysis of Public Transport Users’ Behavior,” by A. M. Ngoc, K. V. Hung, and V. A. Tuan, 2017, Transportation Research Procedia, 25, pp. 4560-4579. (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2017.05.354). CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 Deed | Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 International | Creative Commons
Figure 10.12 Transportation corridor before (above) and after (below) the BRT construction in Hanoi, Vietnam. Image by World Bank from Hanoi Urban Transportation Development Project (P083581), 2018, p. 16. CC BY NC-SA. 4.0, Used with permission https://www.worldbank.org/en/archive/using-the-archives/terms-of-use-reproduction-and-citation Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/ar/598911517844600614/Implementation-Completion-and-Results-Report-ICR-Document-01312018.docx
Figure 10.13 Time savings of BRT riders who shifted from other modes. Image by World Bank from Hanoi Urban Transportation Development Project (P083581), 2018, p. 21. CC BY NC-SA. 4.0, Used with permission https://www.worldbank.org/en/archive/using-the-archives/terms-of-use-reproduction-and-citation Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/ar/598911517844600614/Implementation-Completion-and-Results-Report-ICR-Document-01312018.docx
Figure 10.14 People riding bikes during Ciclovia on the streets of Bogota. From Bogota Ciclovia 20220911, by carlosfpardo, 2022 (https://openverse.org/image/9f0c57a7-c5fe-46f1-befd-05e88f7cccfc?q=ciclovia%20bogota). CC-BY. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/?ref=openverse
Figure 10.15 São Paulo subway map. From “System Map,” by Eliezer Santos, 2020 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_Metro#/media/File:Mapa_do_Metr%C3%B4_de_S%C3%A3o_Paulo_em_escala.png). CC-BY-SA 4.0. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en
Figure 10.16 Bus use in several large urban areas worldwide. From “Brazil’s buses: Simply successful,” by A. Golub. 2004, ACCESS Magazine, 1(24). https://escholarship.org/uc/item/35f1x32t CC-BY-NC https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/
Figure 10.17 Downtown Curitiba, by Francisco Anzola, 2010 (https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Curitiba_Centro.jpg). CC BY 2.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en Note: High density, high-rise TRB corridors rise behind Curitiba’s original downtown shown at the bottom of the image.
Figure 10.18 Downtown Curitiba, by Marc Buehler, 2015 (https://www.flickr.com/photos/marc_buehler/16659092537). CC BY-NC 2.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0/ Note: Automobile traffic is limited in Curitiba’s downtown streets, which have been vastly pedestrianized.
Figure 10.19 Interior view of the double-tube bus stop, Marechal Floriano Station, Green Line, BRT Curitiba, Brazil. From “BRT Curitiba, Brazil,” by Mariordo, 2013 (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Esta%C3%A7%C3%A3o_tubo_Linha_Verde_Curitiba_BRT_05_2013_Est_Marechal_Floriano_6531.JPG). CC BY-SA 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en
Figure 10.20 Marechal Floriano BRT station, Linha Verde (Green Line), Curitiba RIT, Brazil. The Green Line bus transfer stations have four lanes to allow express buses to overtake, while the central busway between stations has only two lanes (background). From “Linha Verde BRT Curitiba, Est Marechal Floriano,” by Mario Roberto Duran Ortiz, 2013 (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Linha_Verde_Curitiba_BRT_02_2013_Est_Marechal_Floriano_5963.JPG). CC BY-SA 3.0. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en
Figure 10.21 A pedal-style rickshaw. From “Dhaka Rickshaw,” by Gary Lee Todd, Ph.D., (https://openverse.org/image/df422783-cd07-46ff-9d6d-1bf9e5f0d2c9?q=rickshaw). CC0 1.0 https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/?ref=openverse
Figure 10.22 Matatus are everywhere within Kenya. Literally everywhere. They are super helpful since they are the main mode of public transportation. They are affordable and reach every part of the city. From “Matatu Manyanga,” by Scovyeli, 2020 (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Matatu_Manyanga.jpg). CC-BY-SA 4.0. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en
Figure 10.23 Boda Boda, the fastest means of beating traffic congestion in Nairobi. From “Boda boda 5,” by Elkanah254, 2020 (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Boda_boda_5.jpg). CC BY-SA 4.0. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en
Figure 10.24 Tuk-tuk on the street of Nairobi, Kenya. From “Tuk-tuk in Nairobi,” by Daryona, 2010 (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tuk-tuk_in_Nairobi_2.JPG) CC BY-SA 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en
Figure 10.25 SafeBoda App. Image adapted by authors from CNET free download information https://download.cnet.com/safeboda/3000-20426_4-77540335.html
Media 10.1 Iamgbolahan. (3032, January 21). Contrasting strides of Agbado infrastructure’s: Federal & Lagos vs. neglected roads by Ogun State [Video]. YouTube https://youtu.be/vQTTMsExE5g?si=bvarxRgsjRHyAmKW
Media 10.2 urbam_EAFIT. (2019, November 12). Medellín: dos historias de transformación [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CFtLKU9AzZw
Media 10.3 StreetfilmsVlog. (2008, January 24). Streetfilms-Ciclovia (Bogotá, Colombia) [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ELa5CHsUepo
Media 10.4 usdotfta. (2024, July 23). FTA history part 2 [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qFZOMMq5Yss
Media 10.5 StreetfilmsVlog. (2009, June 4). Curitiba’s BRT: Inspired bus rapid transit around the world [Video]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vJR9uCSyGKM
Media 10.6 NTU Brasil. (2012, December 11). BRT – the future of urban transportation [Video]. YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sHeUk4Ns5ss
Media 10.7 Comunidade Arquitetura. (2010 December, 5). BRT de Curitiba Video da CNN [Video]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gL_So666mYY

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Transportation Policies, Programs and History Copyright © 2024 by Ivonne Audirac; Amber B. Raley; Jenifer Reiner; and Soheil Sharifi-Asl is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.