15 Technology in Emergency Management: A Review from Developed Nations with Considerations in a Global Context

Kent Cawley, DBA and David A. McEntire, PhD, SFHEA

Authors

Kent Cawley, Strategic Solutions Consultant, Veoci, Austin, TX.
David McEntire, Emergency Services and Criminal Justice Departments, Utah Valley University, Orem, Utah


Keywords

emergency management, technology adoption, GIS, interoperability, situational awareness, collaboration


Abstract

This chapter examines the role of technology in enhancing emergency management practices. It outlines the evolution of basic communication tools, advanced software implementations, and monitoring and detection technologies, highlighting their impact on disaster mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. The discussion covers a range of technological innovations, including communication systems, Emergency Operations Center (EOC) information systems, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), health and medical technologies, public safety and security technology, resource management and logistics, social media, surveillance and monitoring technology, and training and simulation technology. These technologies contribute to improving situational awareness and operational efficiency. The chapter emphasizes the importance of these advancements to the emergency management community, advocating for a collaborative approach to leverage technology for better resilience in a digitally interconnected world. Recommendations for practitioners are provided to enhance the practical application of these technologies. To this end, the chapter seeks to inform future research and policy, underscoring technology’s critical role in shaping emergency management strategies globally.


Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to identify and describe the wide array of technology available to emergency management professionals today, along with reviewing how the tools and their capabilities have evolved in recent years. As one may expect, the technology related to the emergency management profession has come a long way over the last couple decades. From analog pagers to smartphone applications to web-based software solutions to robust surveillance systems, the opportunities to leverage technology seem endless. In fact, the diverse types of technologies utilized in emergency management can be a little overwhelming. It is therefore important to provide an updated perspective on today’s technological landscape in emergency management to inform future research, practice, and policy – particularly at the global level.

A chapter on this topic is also vital because we live in a digital world and research shows an ever-increasing number of agencies that are struggling with the adoption and use of technology (Prasanna & Huggins, 2016). It is likewise clear that the success or failure of technology is not entirely dependent on the capabilities and limitations of the chosen solution. There are other factors to consider (Alwahaishi & Snásel, 2013; Fan, 2013; Hadji & Degoulet, 2016; Jennings, Arlikatti, & Andrew, 2015; Rogers, 2003; Venkatesh, Morris, Davis, & Davis, 2003). Practitioners therefore have a significant responsibility in selecting and in deploying technology. One can argue that it is necessary for practitioners to develop a comprehensive understanding of the technological landscape, including technology adoption strategies.

With this introduction in mind, the chapter will discuss key concepts behind well-known technology adoption models, such as the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) (Venkatesh et al., 2003) and the Diffusion of Innovations Theory (Rogers, 2003) to improve emergency management and the potential for success in dealing with disasters.

Beginning with the methodology used to organize our view of the technological landscape, we set the stage for a deeper analysis of many technological categories that have a direct impact on emergency operations. The analysis includes a description of each category, along with a discussion of notable breakthroughs. Lessons learned are discussed and recommendations for future research are provided. Thus, several vital topics will be discussed in this chapter: recent technological progress, current technology available to the emergency management community, the future direction of emergency management technology, and recommendations for research. This chapter argues that technology is key to improving emergency management worldwide and highlights the importance of global collaboration in adopting innovative solutions.


Literature Review

Initially, there was not a strong focus on technology in emergency management. Some of the first studies focused on the physical agents that trigger disasters. Geographers concentrated on the natural hazards themselves, reviewing disaster-producing agents and their impacts (see Alexander, 1993 for a good example of this work). Later on, sociologists such as Quarantelli, Dynes, and Drabek focused on human behavior during disasters, exploring how communities and individuals respond to crises (Quarantelli, 1998; Dynes, 1970; Drabek, 1986). Combining both geography and sociology, human geographers later began examining social vulnerability, with seminal works like “At Risk” by Blaikie et al. discussing how societal factors (e.g., political and economic systems) contribute to disaster vulnerability (Blaikie et al., 1994).

As studies began to shift more to emergency management specifically, early attention was given to the phases and functions of emergency management. David Neal’s article provided a comprehensive review of these phases (Neal, 1997), and he argued that the phases were not linear but connect in complex ways. About this time, many disaster sociologists, political scientists and scholars in public administration began to examine ways to make warnings, evacuation, sheltering and other functions more effective.

Eventually, the focus on technology started to ramp up, particularly with the concerns about hurricane forecasting and severe weather warnings, such as the implementation of tornado sirens. Studies about earthquakes also gained prominence as researchers wanted to determine if prediction was possible for this type of natural hazard. Engineers also sought to improve building resilience and safety with the use of base isolators.

In the 1990s, growing attention was given to Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and their applications in emergency management. Nicole Dash highlighted the increased use of GIS for spatial analysis in emergency management (Dash, 1997) and gave numerous examples of its benefit. The events of 9/11 further underscored the need for robust technology. This was due in large part to the deaths of many first responders, as detailed in the 9/11 Commission Report (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, 2004).

More recently, researchers like Elliott Jennings have explored information technology systems in emergency management, examining how these systems enhance coordination and decision-making during disasters, along with technology adoption considerations (Jennings et al., 2015). Liu et al. (2017) explored the integration of social media with GIS to improve real-time situational awareness during emergencies. The advent of drone technology has also received considerable attention, with studies focusing on their applications for real-time surveillance and assessment during emergencies (Adams & Friedland, 2011).

Despite these advancements, there is still a need for a more thorough assessment of technology in emergency management. McEntire’s “Disaster Response and Recovery” summarizes the types and value of various technologies in emergency management, highlighting tools such as communication systems, GIS, and public safety technologies (McEntire, 2021). However, a comprehensive evaluation of the role of technology in emergency management is lacking. This gap sets the stage for critical questions: What technologies exist? What are the advantages, challenges, and implications of technology for emergency management?

By addressing these questions, future research can provide deeper insights into how technology can be effectively integrated into EM practices, ultimately enhancing the preparedness, response, and recovery efforts of emergency managers worldwide.


Methodology

This chapter aims to cover the technological landscape comprehensively, acknowledging the possibility of not capturing every nuance or emerging technology in this rapidly evolving field. The insights provided here are intended to give a broad overview of current technologies in emergency management, serving as a basis for further discussion as new technologies emerge.

The findings of this chapter are not based on survey research or personal interviews with emergency managers. Instead, the findings on technology are drawn from the professional knowledge and experience of the primary and secondary authors. Each author’s qualifications are provided below, followed by a brief introduction to the categories of technology that represent this chapter’s focus.


Kent Cawley

Dr. Kent Cawley’s academic journey started at the University of North Texas, earning a Bachelor of Science in Emergency Administration and Planning. This was a foundational step that set the stage for his future contributions to emergency management. Building on his academic qualifications, he earned a Master of Science in Technology from Arizona State University. His academic pursuits then culminated in a Doctor of Business Administration, specializing in Homeland Security Leadership and Policy, reflecting his deep commitment to merging strategic leadership with emergency management principles.

With respect to professional experience, Dr. Cawley has distinguished himself as a thought leader in emergency management and technology adoption. He has over twenty years of experience providing technical consulting and training services to emergency management professionals across the private sector and public agencies at all levels of government. Furthermore, his unique blend of roles as an end user, implementation analyst, and systems engineer has been critical in navigating the complexities of technology adoption in emergency management. This expertise has enabled him to bridge the gap between technological potential and practical application, ensuring that emergency management systems are not only advanced but also user-friendly and effective in real-world scenarios.

Dr. Cawley’s contributions consist of providing hands-on support in emergency operations centers (EOC) in high-stakes situations, including activations for major disasters and national special security events. Examples include supporting state and local EOC’s during many hurricanes, local severe weather events, and wildfires. Dr. Cawley also provided support for the Washington, D.C. EOC during the 2009 presidential inauguration, as well as onsite support during multiple Super Bowl activations for Miami-Dade County, the City of Houston, and the City and County of San Francisco. His leadership and expertise have been pivotal in developing and implementing effective information management processes, enhancing collaborative efforts, and improving decision-making in the EOC during these critical times. His role in shaping crisis information management strategies and his ability to leverage technology to improve organizational effectiveness, coupled with a solid academic background, qualifies Dr. Cawley as an expert in the field of Technology in Emergency Management.


David McEntire

Dr. David McEntire’s academic career included the pursuit of undergraduate and graduate degrees in international relations/international politics. Although not initially focused on disasters and emergency management, he soon became interested in these subjects after the Kobe earthquake in Japan in 1995. While writing his thesis, he focused on disasters in developing nations and the challenges facing the international community before, during, and after such crises. During his studies at the Graduate School of International Studies, McEntire also worked for the American Red Cross in Denver, Colorado in the After Hour/International Services Division. He conducted field research in Peru and the Dominican Republic while working on his dissertation.

Dr. McEntire later accepted a faculty position at the University of North Texas in the Emergency Administration and Planning program (where he met the primary author of this chapter). He now serves as a full professor teaching emergency management, homeland security, and national security at Utah Valley University. In these positions, he has traveled abroad to study disasters, speak at conferences, and examine research on emergency management systems including Australia, Canada, China, Costa Rica, Hungary, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, and Norway.

With the funding of various grants, Dr. McEntire has published over 150 articles and several books including Comparative Emergency Management: Understanding Disaster Policies, Organizations, and Initiatives from Around the World (FEMA). His research has also discussed the role of technology in various emergency management functions in his book Disaster Response and Recovery: Strategies and Tactics for Resilience (Wiley).


Strengths and Weaknesses of the Selected Methodology

The heavy reliance on the knowledge and experience of the primary and second authors is accompanied with both strengths and weaknesses. In terms of strengths, the methodology leverages the extensive professional experience and academic background of Dr. Kent Cawley and Dr. David McEntire. Their collective experiences provide a unique and informed perspective on the application of technology in emergency management. Dr. Cawley’s direct involvement in high-stakes EOC activations and Dr. McEntire’s international research contribute to a well-rounded view of technological advancements and their practical applications. The methodology selected may also provide practical insights. Unlike methodologies that rely heavily on theoretical perspectives, this approach draws from the authors’ research efforts and firsthand experiences. This ensures that the content of this chapter is grounded in practical thought, providing actionable insights from the front lines of emergency management. Finally, the methodology includes comprehensive coverage of technology. The authors’ knowledge allows for a broad spectrum of technologies in emergency management to be covered, offering readers a panoramic view of the current technological landscape. This comprehensive approach helps in understanding the interconnective nature and the potential synergies of various technologies and systems.

In addition to the notable benefits of this methodology, there are three possible weaknesses which must be acknowledged. First, there is the potential for subjectivity and potential bias. Since the findings are primarily based on the authors’ experiences and insights, there is a risk of subjective interpretations and potential biases influencing the content. Personal experiences, while valuable, may not always represent the broader trends or experiences of others in the field. Second, this methodology lacks empirical data. The methodology does not include survey research or systematic data collection, which means it lacks empirical evidence that could validate or challenge the authors’ observations. This could lead to gaps in understanding or overlook emerging trends that have not directly impacted the authors’ professional environments. Finally, the methodology for this research may provide a limited scope of emerging technologies. By relying on the authors’ direct experiences, the methodology might not fully capture the most cutting-edge or emerging technologies unless the authors have engaged with them. This could result in an underrepresentation of newer technology.


Technology Categories

In spite of possible weaknesses, the authors do believe their assessment of the status of technology may be advantageous due to their attempt to address this topic from a comprehensive standpoint. The sheer variety of technological solutions in emergency management demands an organized approach to identifying all the tools used by practitioners and assessing the progressive evolution of these tools over time. The spotlight is on technology solutions that have a direct impact on emergency management operations. The types of technologies for emergency managers can be organized into the following categories to improve our understanding of their purpose and functionality.

    1. Communication Technology: Examples include emergency notification systems, Integrated Public Alert and Warning System (IPAWS), radio communication, and tools facilitating interoperability, such as the ACU-1000.
    2. Emergency Operations Center (EOC) Information Systems: Examples include software platforms designed to facilitate the sharing of granular and aggregate levels of situational awareness in the form of near-real-time communication, status updates, request management, stakeholder collaboration, and the sharing of documentation.
    3. Geographic Information Systems (GIS): Examples include interactive mapping solutions and products that contribute to spatial analysis in emergencies.
    4. Health and Medical Technology: Examples include wearable technology to monitor the health of emergency responders, electronic health records, and telemedicine.
    5. Public Safety and Security Technology: Examples include solutions for facility access control, responder credentialing, cyber security, and more.
    6. Resource Management and Logistics: Examples include solutions for managing the deployment, use, and demobilization of personnel and equipment resources during emergencies and planned events, including volunteer and donations management.
    7. Social Media: Examples include commonly-known tools (Facebook, X, Instagram, etc.) that are leveraged by emergency management stakeholders (public agencies, private corporations, and citizens) to engage the community in real time, facilitating communication with a large population and increasing situational awareness.
    8. Surveillance and Monitoring Technology: Examples include environmental sensors, weather stations, detection equipment, and camera feeds, to name a few.
    9. Training and Simulation Technology: Examples include on-demand courses and learning tools, exercise simulation platforms, and virtual reality training tools for responders.

Of course, it should be pointed out that additional categories exist for technologies which also have an indirect impact on emergency operations, such as tools related to climate change, energy management, venue management, special event management, and solutions for accessibility by individuals with disabilities, among others. Although these solutions are valuable, they are not covered in detail within this chapter due to space limitations. The spotlight will instead remain on solutions that directly impact emergency operations, but these additional technology categories are recognized for their tangential contribution. The additional categories are mentioned here to provide a more comprehensive view of the technological landscape and as evidence of the fact they were not overlooked.

Now that we have established a foundational understanding of the technologies included and excluded from this chapter, the next sections will dive into each of the nine technology categories identified above that have a direct impact on emergency management operations. These technologies are further organized according to their primary impact within specific phases of emergency management. It is important to note, however, many of these technologies are quite versatile and possess capability that may be leveraged in multiple phases. They are organized by phase here simply to enhance one’s comprehension of the material.


Technology in the Mitigation and Preparedness Phases

This section covers technologies that bolster overall preparedness. It highlights public safety tools that aim to mitigate the effects of hazards through risk assessment, advanced warning, tactical intelligence, and triggering response measures. The discussion also includes simulation technologies for immersive training experiences and resource management systems, which are crucial for thorough emergency preparedness and efficient response operations.


Geographic Information Systems

Spatial analysis is critical to strategic response planning. GIS technology allows responders to visualize the location of hazard events and better understand the geographic context of the emergency, including identifying the status and location of critical infrastructure and key resources such as hospitals, fire stations, and specialized response teams. This enhanced geographic context allows for a more accurate assessment of risks, potential impacts, and the prioritization of response efforts, ensuring resources are deployed when and where they are needed most.

GIS technology can consume and display data from many different sources and overlay this data on maps. Sources include EOC information systems, population demographics, infrastructure data housed in other systems, and outputs from various modeling solutions for hazardous materials dispersion, flooding, traffic flow, and weather predictions. This comprehensive integration allows for a deep analysis of the situation, informed decision-making, and effective resource management. GIS platforms significantly enhance emergency management professionals’ ability to anticipate and visualize the dynamics of different hazards, enabling the development of more targeted evacuation and response strategies.


Examples:

  • CAMEO Suite: This suite integrates a chemical database with emergency response tools. ALOHA models the dispersion of hazardous chemicals, while MARPLOT maps their potential impacts, enhancing preparedness and response efforts.
  • ESRI ArcGIS: A GIS platform that offers advanced mapping and analytics capabilities, widely used by emergency management professionals for spatial analysis and decision support.
  • Google Earth: A cloud-based platform for planetary-scale environmental data analysis, which can be utilized for tracking changes and mapping data trends.
  • Survey123: An ESRI application that facilitates field data collection and integrates seamlessly with ArcGIS for real-time data analysis and mapping.
  • QGIS: An open-source GIS software that provides a user-friendly interface for spatial analysis, data visualization, and map making.
  • Waze and Google Maps: Traffic models that analyze real-time data, historical traffic patterns, and user reports to provide accurate navigation and traffic predictions.

Notable Breakthroughs
Streamlining the integration with third-party products represents a significant breakthrough for GIS technology, leading to better data analytics and situational awareness. The development of mobile applications, which give users access to real-time data in the field, has also been a major advancement, making it easier for users to view and update situational maps from the field. These technological improvements have positioned GIS tools as indispensable assets for practitioners globally in all phases of emergency management.


Public Safety and Security Technology

Solutions in this technology category play an important role in minimizing or reducing the impact of hazard events by identifying risks, enhancing response strategies, and prioritizing safety and security.

Public safety and security technology includes a wide range of tools that are designed to enhance response capabilities and minimize the impact of hazard events on responders and the public. Tools include body cams, dash cams, hazardous material detectors (chemical, biological, and radiological), health monitors, and others. Adopting these tools increases transparency and accountability in the field. It also helps keep responders safe by detecting environmental hazards. Biometric sensors allow for efficient identification of individuals and responders at the border and other security checkpoints. Next Generation 911 (NG911) systems support multimedia calls, allowing citizens to send text messages, images, and videos during emergencies. These technologies elevate responder effectiveness and community safety.

Security for EOCs, command posts, and government facilities is also a critical aspect of public safety and security technology. Ensuring that only authorized personnel are admitted to these sensitive areas is essential for maintaining the integrity and effectiveness of emergency management operations. EOC activations require stringent security measures, including access control systems, surveillance cameras, and credentialing processes, to name a few.


Examples:

  • Access Control Systems: Utilized at EOCs, command posts, and government facilities to ensure that only authorized personnel are admitted.
  • Next Generation 911: Internet Protocol (IP)-based 911 systems that modernize emergency call center capabilities by allowing the acceptance of texts, photos, videos, and voice. This provides dispatchers with more contextual information, resulting in a more effective response effort.
  • Surveillance Cameras: Used to monitor sensitive areas and ensure the safety and security of personnel and facilities.
  • Wearable Devices: Commonly used by responders and include tools like body cams, health monitors, and hazardous materials detection, to name a few. These devices record interactions and incidents, alert personnel of environmental threats, and increase situational awareness.

Notable Breakthroughs
One of the most significant advancements in this category is the development of Next Generation 911. This technology greatly enhances the ability of public safety answering points to receive and process citizen requests through a variety of channels. Such capabilities allow emergency call centers to accept texts, photos, and videos, providing dispatchers with more context and enabling a more effective response effort. Another key advancement is the wide adoption of Internet of Things (IoT) devices to bolster detection capabilities and to issue alerts that trigger response to emerging threats. These technologies enhance public safety response capabilities, which is an important step towards minimizing the impact of emergencies.


Resource Management and Logistics

Resource management and logistics technology is commonly utilized in all phases of emergency management. It is included with the preparedness phase because of the enormous amount of work that is needed to achieve consensus on policy and procedure for managing inventory, requesting and deploying resources, as well as the effort required to configure, test, and train users on the system. Without this work in the preparedness phase, one can certainly expect a relatively low level of adoption in the response and recovery phases.

Technology exists to manage the entire lifecycle of resource management. This includes the procurement of resources, maintaining accurate inventories, tracking the deployment of resources and personnel, and managing the demobilization of non-consumable resources. The goal is to ensure all resources are accounted for and can be mobilized and demobilized efficiently in emergency situations.


Examples:

  • Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) Systems: Employ GPS technology to monitor the locations of vehicles and personnel, ensuring optimal deployment and utilization.
  • Inventory Management Systems: Critical for maintaining accurate records of resources, helping emergency managers to quickly assess availability and needs during a crisis.
  • Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Tracking Systems: Utilize radio frequency technology to track the movement and status of resources in real-time, enhancing visibility and accountability.
  • Supply Chain Management Systems: Offer a holistic approach to managing the procurement, inventory, and deployment of resources, facilitating efficient and effective resource management.

Notable Breakthroughs
The industry has witnessed significant advancements in resource management technology for emergency managers in recent years. These advancements include enhancing the flexibility and robustness of existing solutions, as well as the development of brand-new products. RFID and AVL technologies are among these developments. They are designed to track the location and status of resources in real time. Additionally, the adoption of supply chain management systems and inventory management systems has become more common for larger emergency management agencies, revolutionizing resource management for emergency managers.


Surveillance and Monitoring

Most of us have smoke detectors in our homes and workplaces. They have proven to be reliable tools for alerts and early warning, and they have saved lives. Emergency managers have access to many more sophisticated tools like this that can quickly detect and assess a wide variety of threats in real-time, triggering response activities, safety measures, and strategic planning efforts.

Surveillance and monitoring technology includes a large selection of tools that offer a range of capabilities. Solutions exist to assess risks, monitor the environment, and provide actionable intelligence on important topics like severe weather, earthquakes, biological threats, chemical releases, and more. Weather stations and Internet of Things (IoT) devices play a big role in collecting and analyzing data from different locations. Some of these solutions are highly portable personal devices worn or used by responders, such as chemical, biological, and radiation detectors. Other solutions are stationed in the field to monitor large areas. Also worth mentioning is the use of drones and satellite imagery to provide pictures and video feeds of downrange conditions. The purpose behind these solutions is to provide emergency managers with insight and lead time to take protective action and inform response planning.


Examples:

  • Drones: Remote-controlled devices equipped with cameras and sensors, used to collect data from hard-to-reach areas.
  • Flood Gauges: Devices used to measure water levels in rivers, streams, and other bodies of water, providing critical data for flood monitoring and early warning systems.
  • Global Seismographic Network: A network of seismographic stations, designed to monitor seismic activity and provide early warnings for earthquakes and tsunamis.
  • Radar Systems: Used to monitor weather conditions and detect severe weather phenomena, such as storms and tornadoes.
  • Satellite Imagery: High-resolution images of the earth’s surface, aiding in the monitoring and analysis of environmental changes and disaster impacts.

Notable Breakthroughs
The adoption of IoT devices marks a significant advancement for this category of technology. These devices can continuously monitor small and large areas. Some are permanent or semi-permanent stations, while others are portable, covering a variety of applications. Another breakthrough in this category is the expanding use of video feeds from the field via drone cams and other devices. Additionally, advancements in earthquake early warning systems, particularly in seismically active countries like Japan, represent a critical evolution in disaster preparedness. These systems can provide precious seconds or even minutes of warning before the seismic waves arrive, significantly enhancing the population’s ability to take protective action. Similarly, tsunami warning systems leverage seismic data to alert coastal areas of impending waves, further illustrating the pivotal role of technology in enhancing timely responses to disasters. The collective benefit of these technologies is real-time insight into current conditions, enabling emergency managers to make informed decisions and act quickly.


Training and Simulation Technology

Training and simulation technology plays an important role in preparedness. These solutions offer stakeholders and decision-makers a risk-free environment to build the knowledge and ability to carry out complex, often stressful job functions. They also support continuous learning and skill enhancement crucial for community resilience.

This category of technology includes many tools designed to enhance training for emergency management professionals. Virtual Reality (VR) solutions can provide access to video feeds, map data, and browser data for an immersive learning environment. Web-based exercise simulation tools deliver injects and prompts to all participants and locations in real time. Additionally, web-based conferencing software and on-demand learning platforms are often leveraged for instructor-led training and self-paced learning to accommodate the unpredictable schedules and lifestyles of personnel in the emergency management community. The applications and benefits of training and simulation technology in the preparedness phase are clear.


Examples:

  • Calian ResponseReady: A simulation tool designed to manage the entire lifecycle of emergency exercises, including planning, delivery, and evaluation. It also helps to create the real-world context often missing in exercises through simulated social media tools, web-conferencing, news releases, and more.
  • EmergiSim: VR solution to train and develop first responder skills in high threat / low-frequency events. The simulations deliver a highly stressful and overwhelming experience designed to test the participants’ critical decision-making skills in a real-time environment.
  • Headwall VR: Specializes in VR-based solutions for command centers that immerse users in realistic emergency situations to improve situational awareness and response strategies.
  • Learning Management Systems (LMS): Provide access to on-demand courses and resources, allowing for self-paced learning and tracking of student progress.
  • Zoom and Microsoft Teams: Commonly used for meetings, remote training sessions, and webinars, these tools facilitate distance learning and knowledge sharing among emergency management professionals on a regular basis.

Notable Breakthroughs
There are several notable breakthroughs to mention in this category. The development and ongoing advancement of VR technology is among the most significant, providing access to 360° video imagery and creating immersive, highly interactive learning experiences in lifelike conditions. Exercise simulation tools have also evolved to help manage the entire lifecycle of exercise planning, delivery, and evaluation. Many agencies, especially those in highly regulated industries, have come to rely heavily on these simulation tools for documentation, training, and to support continuous improvement. Finally, the widespread use of web-based conferencing tools has transformed business practices, with these tools being used on a routine basis across many industries. As it relates to preparedness though, they make instructor-led training more accessible and allow instructors to accommodate more students than in the past.


Technology in the Response and Recovery Phases

This section highlights technologies that contribute to emergency response and recovery. It covers key topics such as communication, Emergency Operations Center (EOC) systems, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), medical technologies, and social media, highlighting how these tools inform decision-making, enhance collaboration, and ensure effective management during emergencies.


Communication Technology

Communication is always a priority in emergency response, so it is no surprise there is a wide selection of communication technology available today. Solutions are designed to facilitate real-time collaboration among responding agencies and the rapid dissemination of information. Reliable, timely communication is vital for effective management of resources and response activities. In fact, good communication often leads to a more efficient response efforts.

Communication technology includes many tools that are designed to improve the flow of information during emergencies. Tools and platforms that send emergency notifications to responders and the public, radio communication, and text or email alerts are great examples. The common purpose behind all these tools is to ensure that important information reaches the intended audience quickly and efficiently.

Examples:

  • Alertus: Specializes in mass notification systems, offering solutions to quickly alert large numbers of people across multiple platforms.
  • Everbridge: A global software company offering mass notification and enterprise applications to help organizations manage emergencies.
  • FirstNet: A dedicated, nationwide broadband network for first responders that ensures reliable and secure communication during emergencies.
  • Rave Mobile Safety: Provides a suite of tools designed to facilitate rapid notification, information exchange, and coordination.
  • Regroup: Enhances emergency and routine communications with a multi-channel mass notification platform, integrating real-time threat intelligence and robust integrations.
  • Reverse 911 Systems: Platforms that deliver emergency notifications directly to landline and mobile phones, alerting residents to take protective actions.
  • Twilio: A cloud communications platform that supports messaging, voice, and video, enabling flexible and scalable emergency communications.
  • Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA): A public notification system that sends emergency information to mobile devices.

Notable Breakthroughs
Communication technology is evolving rapidly. Notable advancements include the introduction of Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) for public notifications. Additionally, tools and platforms that support interoperability, such as FirstNet and the gateway devices like the ACU-1000, have helped bridge the gap between disparate systems and improved collaboration among responders. Also worth noting is the evolution of web-based notification tools that no longer rely on traditional telephone lines to send alerts and, consequently, offer a more cost-effective and efficient means of disseminating information. Many of the web-based tools also facilitate responses from notification recipients, a bi-directional flow of information. Radio interoperability and more effective notification tools, including reverse 911 systems have proven extremely valuable in recent years.

 

Emergency Operations Center (EOC) Information Systems

EOC information systems serve a valuable purpose in the response and recovery phases. These tools inform decision-making and response strategies through data analytics, real-time collaboration on web-based workflows, and the sharing of documentation. The software platforms are typically considered the “system of record” for emergency information and often integrate with other third-party systems to build a common operating picture for responders. Beyond facilitating core EOC workflows for information sharing and building situational awareness, these systems are configurable and are becoming increasingly known for incorporating a wide range of processes. Examples of some of these specialized processes include hazard identification and risk assessment, emergency operations plan development, damage assessment, and others. There are, of course, standalone tools for damage assessment, such as Crisis Track by Juvare and Fulcrum’s Damage Assessment App. There are also standalone tools for risk assessment, such as Hazus by FEMA and DisasterAWARE by the Pacific Disaster Center. Many of the functionalities offered by the standalone tools, however, are also being replicated within configurable EOC Information Systems through custom development.

 

Examples:

  • D4H: A comprehensive readiness and response management software solution that provides real-time situational awareness, resource tracking, and incident reporting to streamline emergency operations and decision-making.
  • DisasterLAN: A web-based emergency management system that enhances situational awareness with customizable dashboards, advanced GIS tools, and real-time communication. It supports scalable operations and offers 24/7 activation support for continuous readiness.
  • Noggin: An all-hazards incident management platform that equips emergency managers with tools for effective decision-making and communication during crises. It integrates risk management, safety, and security workflows to optimize emergency response and recovery efforts.
  • Priority 5: Touch Assisted Command and Control System (TACCS) provides a comprehensive, interactive common operating picture and summary dashboards that assist users in managing events at any scale.
  • The Response Group (TRG): This organization produces Web-based software solutions that integrate data from multiple sources to enhance situational awareness and support decision-making for incident management teams. Key components include a Common Operating Picture, Incident Action Plan, and mobile applications for accountability, resource management, and more.
  • Veoci: A versatile, no-code platform that enhances communication, collaboration, and crisis management. Veoci integrates hazard analysis and risk assessment workflows, GIS capabilities, plan development tools, and other customizable workflows to support emergency preparedness and operational efficiency for EOCs.
  • WebEOC: An adaptable incident management system with robust GIS capabilities, plan development tools, and configurable processes. WebEOC offers a common operating picture, improving situational awareness, decision-making, and resource coordination in emergencies.

Notable Breakthroughs
EOC information systems serve a valuable purpose in the response and recovery phases. These tools inform decision-making and response strategies through data analytics, real-time collaboration on web-based workflows, and the sharing of documentation. The software platforms are typically considered the “system of record” for emergency information and often integrate with other third-party systems to build a common operating picture for responders. Beyond facilitating core EOC workflows for information sharing and building situational awareness, these systems are configurable and are becoming increasingly known for incorporating a wide range of processes. Examples of some of these specialized processes include hazard identification and risk assessment, emergency operations plan development, damage assessment, and others. There are, of course, standalone tools for damage assessment, such as Crisis Track by Juvare and Fulcrum’s Damage Assessment App. There are also standalone tools for risk assessment, such as Hazus by FEMA and DisasterAWARE by the Pacific Disaster Center. Many of the functionalities offered by the standalone tools, however, are also being replicated within configurable EOC Information Systems through custom development.

 

Health and Medical Technology

Life safety is a priority in the aftermath of a hazard event. Health and medical technology is used by healthcare providers to support medical operations when it’s needed most in order to save lives. These technologies allow quick access to medical records and more thorough documentation – even by those operating in the field or in an ambulance. Technology solutions also resolve many of the challenges associated with handwritten notes of the past, such as time lags and readability, enhancing patient care in emergencies.

This category of technology includes a wide range of tools and systems that are designed to optimize health and medical operations during emergencies. Electronic Patient Care Records, which contain important patient information, can be accessed by healthcare providers from anywhere and updates can be shared in real time. Patient tracking systems allow providers to track the location of patients and assist with managing facility transfers. Health and medical technology also includes healthcare-specific resource management tools to ensure equipment and personnel are deployed where and when they are needed most.


Examples:

  • Telemedicine platforms: Allow for remote consultations and assessments, extending medical services to hard-to-reach or impacted areas during emergencies.
  • EMResource: A comprehensive resource management tool that provides real-time information on the availability and status of healthcare facilities and resources.
  • EMTrack: Designed for real-time patient tracking and management during emergency incidents. It helps in monitoring patient status, location, and medical history
  • EOC information systems: These systems often include modules or integrations specifically designed for managing health and medical response activities, facilitating information sharing between emergency managers and healthcare entities.
  • Pulsara: A mobile-friendly, web-based solution that unites the entire emergency medical team, from paramedics to hospital staff, on a single platformn. It streamlines the sharing of critical patient information and status updates, facilitating faster, more coordinated care.

Notable Breakthroughs
There are several breakthroughs that should be highlighted. Portable medical records represent a significant technological advancement. They help facilitate the seamless transition of care between emergency services and healthcare providers, which leads to better patient care. Telemedicine also represents an advancement that has made healthcare more accessible. Finally, the development of sophisticated tools for tracking healthcare resources has proven valuable. These tools allow agencies to monitor supply levels and predict future needs. The ultimate goal of these breakthroughs is to continually improve healthcare operations, response capability, patient care, and responder safety.

 

Social Media

Social media has become an important part of life for most of us. It has also become an increasingly beneficial tool in the response phase of emergency management. These tools allow for real-time communication and community-wide engagement, which also makes them a good option for public alerts and warnings. The widespread adoption of social media makes it an effective tool for communication and situational awareness in emergencies.

People of all ages use social media platforms, such as Facebook, Instagram, and Snapchat. In emergencies, the platforms can also effectively deliver alerts and safety instructions. Additionally, they can be used to distribute guidance in the recovery phase. The decentralized nature of social media allows individuals to ask for help, offer assistance, and share situational awareness during emergencies. Admittedly, it can be challenging to validate user-generated content, but the community also helps with fact-checking. Social media remains an effective tool for emergency managers and individuals to connect virtually during difficult times.


Examples:

  • Facebook Crisis Response: A set of tools that enable users to mark themselves safe, share information, and offer help during emergencies.
  • Instagram Live: Offers individuals and organizations the ability to stream live video, providing updates from the field and raising situational awareness during emergencies.
  • Snapchat: Offers several tools that enable location sharing, viewing snaps from specific geographic locations, and real-time communication through direct messages or video calls.

Notable Breakthroughs
The development of crisis response features on social media platforms was a breakthrough for the emergency management community. Facebook Crisis Response allows users to mark themselves safe, ask for help, and receive important announcements in emergencies. Additionally, live video streaming capabilities, such as Instagram Live and Facebook Live, provide real-time updates from the field, greatly enhancing situational awareness.

 

Discussion

Technology selection and implementation introduces a rather long list of opportunities and challenges. As discussed throughout this chapter, the adoption of new technology – ranging from GIS and NG911 systems to EOC information systems and IoT devices – has the potential to significantly improve situational awareness, communication capability, and resource management. However, effective implementation of these technologies can be complex, requiring significant financial investment, stakeholder collaboration, strategic planning, and an ongoing effort to identify and address the challenges with each product.


Interconnection, Interaction, and Integration of Technologies

One of the benefits of technology today is the ability for solutions to connect with one another. In emergency management, the ability to integrate diverse technologies can lead to more cohesive and efficient operations. For example, communication systems must often interface with GIS platforms to provide real-time mapping of incidents, and EOC information systems may need to incorporate data from surveillance and monitoring devices to offer a comprehensive situational overview.

Managing the compatibility of technologies can be technically and operationally challenging but is essential for effective emergency response. Interconnected technologies enable the sharing of critical information across platforms, facilitating better coordination among responding agencies. This interconnectedness also enhances situational awareness and speeds up decision-making.


Collaborative Effort and Investment in Implementation

The successful implementation of technology requires emergency managers to do much more than simply select the tools. It requires a commitment to the entire implementation process, including the investment of financial resources and human capital. Some technologies are easier than others, but challenges such as financial constraints, integration complexities (technical and operational), training and adoption hurdles, privacy concerns, and the need for international adaptability often complicate the process and underscore the importance of a collaborative approach. Stakeholders must work together, sharing best practices and lessons learned, guiding the configuration and use of the technology, monitoring performance, and embracing a mindset of continuous improvement. Many of these solutions should remain in a constant state of refinement to ensure they continue to meet the evolving needs of the organization.

Frameworks like the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) (Venkatesh et al., 2003) and the Diffusion of Innovations (Rogers, 2003) offer detailed insights into the factors influencing technology adoption. The UTAUT model, for example, identifies four key determinants of user acceptance and usage behavior: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions. It also considers moderating factors such as age, gender, experience, and voluntariness of use. These elements highlight the importance of perceived operational value, ease of use, establishing the expectation to use technology, and organizational support in the form of training and equipment to user adoption.

The Diffusion of Innovations theory, proposed by Everett Rogers (2003), further explains the adoption process by categorizing adopters into five groups: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards. This theory also emphasizes the characteristics of new technologies that promote adoption, such as the technology’s relative advantage over existing method(s), compatibility with existing systems and business practices, complexity, trialability, and observability. Practitioners are encouraged to embrace these concepts for a better chance of success.

By integrating these models into the planning and implementation stages, emergency management practitioners can better anticipate and address the challenges associated with technology adoption. This theoretical foundation provides a structured approach to evaluating technologies, ensuring they align with the organizational needs and user capabilities throughout their entire lifecycle.


Addressing Global Challenges

The global emergency management community faces a somewhat unique set of challenges with technology adoption. These challenges are closely tied to variations in financial capabilities, infrastructure readiness, language barriers, time zones, and cultural differences. Technology implementation on a global scale requires that stakeholders – both manufacturers and practitioners – make a concentrated effort to address these challenges. A collaborative approach fosters a more unified effort to address a wide variety of issues. Recognizing that the variation in the norms and practices in different countries may preclude a one-size-fits-all approach to technology use, technology implementation on a global scale requires stakeholders to strive for adaptable, scalable, and customizable solutions. These characteristics are key to addressing divergent strategies for technology adoption and fostering a more unified approach to emergency management.


Financial, Technical, and Regulatory Hurdles

Financial constraints and infrastructure requirements can represent significant barriers to adopting and implementing new technologies, particularly for agencies and organizations located in developing regions. Additionally, the complexities associated with integrating new technologies with legacy systems, training end users, and maintaining data privacy and security pose additional challenges that require thorough planning. Dedicated resources and services may be needed to overcome these challenges.


Future Considerations

As we look to the future, it is worth reviewing trends and operational considerations that will influence how technology is used by emergency managers. Data analytics, artificial intelligence (AI), and notification systems are experiencing a lot of innovation, promising to enhance operational capabilities and situational awareness. Also worth noting, however, the successful adoption of these advanced technologies hinges on addressing several foundational aspects, including funding, culture, and training.


Trends in Emergency Management Technology

Advancements in data analytics and AI are set to revolutionize emergency management by providing predictive modeling and decision support at extraordinary levels. New technologies have the ability to analyze big data quickly, predict future events, and recommend response strategies, which then enables a more proactive posture for emergency managers. Similarly, notification systems have evolved rapidly in recent years and agencies are making significant strides to incorporate them with emergency operations. The adoption and use of these tools will certainly continue to expand in the coming years.


Recommendations for Practitioners

Building a technology-positive culture within emergency management agencies is essential for future success. This requires leadership to establish a technology strategy, promote a culture of innovation that values technology and continuous improvement, and develop integration strategies that ensure technology solutions can work together. Practitioners should also consider the principles outlined in the UTAUT and Diffusion of Innovations models to guide their technology adoption processes. Ultimately, the key to thriving in emergency management is for practitioners to promote a culture that values technology solutions and wants to leverage them to the fullest to enhance operational performance.

For emergency management practitioners, staying informed on the latest advancements is important for continuous improvement. Embracing flexible, scalable solutions will allow agencies to evolve with the technological landscape. Practitioners should advocate for a culture of innovation, one that recognizes technology as a tool to enhance human processes and improve emergency response outcomes. Training and integration plans are an important part of the implementation process because they help ensure personnel can effectively utilize technologies in emergency situations. By keeping abreast of technological advancements and fostering an innovative culture, emergency management practitioners can significantly improve response capabilities and outcomes.


Recommendations for Future Research

Future research should include a comprehensive investigation of the pros and cons of all emergency management technology solutions. Virtually every tool, platform, and system in use today possesses a unique set of benefits and challenges, warranting a deeper dive into their effectiveness and to identify opportunities for improvement. Among these, the application and implications of artificial intelligence (AI) and data analytics stand out as particularly critical areas for exploration. The potential of these technologies to transform emergency management is significant, specifically in areas like predictive modeling, decision support, and enhanced situational awareness. More research is needed to identify best practices for the implementation of AI and data analytics. Additionally, exploring innovative funding models and evaluating the impact of notification systems on public response represent major avenues for further research. Such inquiries will advance our understanding of technology’s role in emergency management and aim to improve operational outcomes across the emergency management community.


Conclusion

This chapter has explored the technological landscape in emergency management, highlighting the importance of innovation. From the development of sophisticated communication tools and data management systems to the implementation of GIS and predictive modeling platforms, technology has changed the way emergency managers are able to predict, prepare for, respond to, and recover from disasters.

The effort to integrate the use of technology with emergency management practices is ongoing. Practitioners face a range of opportunities and challenges. As discussed in this chapter, the successful adoption of technology is not solely dependent on the tools themselves but also on a strong implementation methodology that includes financial investment, stakeholder engagement, strategic planning, and technical expertise. Furthermore, while the nature of emergency management calls for adaptable, scalable, and customizable technological solutions, these characteristics arguably hold an even greater level of importance on the international scale.

The future of emergency management technology is promising, including inevitable advancements in data analytics, artificial intelligence, notification systems, and other areas. These innovations offer the potential for more proactive emergency management practices, enhancing operational performance, and better situational awareness.

To truly benefit from these opportunities, emergency management practitioners must foster a culture of innovation and continuous improvement. This involves staying informed on the latest technological advancements, advocating for flexible and scalable solutions, and developing integration strategies that ensure technology solutions can work together.

By embracing the tools and strategies discussed in this chapter, emergency management professionals can improve response capabilities and build resilience.



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Current and Emerging Trends in the Management of International Disasters Copyright © 2024 by Kent Cawley, DBA and David A. McEntire, PhD, SFHEA is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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