Authors

David A. McEntire, PhD, SFHEA, Utah Valley University
Laura M. Phipps, DrPH, MPH, CPH, RS, University of Texas at Arlington

Introduction

The authors of this book have generated and shared important information about the management of international disasters in their respective chapters. They have produced vital findings about the risk we are facing and critically assessed our current efforts to deal with this unsettling trend. In addition, the various chapters include notable recommendations to improve the future of international disaster management. The following chapter discusses these crucial topics and concludes with suggestions on how both scholars and practitioners should move forward.

Findings about International Disaster Management

The chapters in this book have effectively described the complex context surrounding international disaster management and have advocated for a more proactive approach in terms of how we should address the pressing hazards that are confronting us. In addition, the contributors to this book have also pointed out the needs of some of the most vulnerable groups in disasters and other crises, and their work has underscored why it is necessary to focus on current practical challenges and unfolding opportunities. Furthermore, the research provided in this book identifies ways to professionalize emergency management personnel for a brighter future. Each of these themes will be discussed in turn.

Identifying the Context of Disasters and Emergency Management

In chapter 2, “Beyond Borders: Comparative Disaster Response Systems and the Challenges of Humanitarian Coordination,” Dulce Suarez examines FEMA’s response to Hurricane Maria as well as United Nations actions after the Haiti earthquake. She argues that the complexities of international disaster management are becoming increasingly evident and asserts that professionals today must grapple with a variety of disasters ranging from natural hazards, worldwide pandemics, and ongoing conflicts.

In order to understand how emergency managers and humanitarian workers at the national and international levels coordinate efforts, Suarez utilizes the comparative method to explore adaptable solutions to response operations worldwide. On the one hand, Suarez asserts that FEMA has given priority to the more centralized and standardized structure of the Incident Command System after the major terrorist attacks on 9/11. On the other hand, UNOCHA has undertaken a more people-centered approach, which advocates collaboration with many partners.

Although there are some significant similarities among the US and UN systems that deserve further exploration (e.g., the relation of Emergency Support Functions and Recovery Support Functions to the UN Cluster Approach, or the resemblance of FEMA’s Whole Community to UNOCHA’s people-centered approach), Suarez’s work reminds us that disasters include elements of chaos and order, and that any response system is bound to have strengths and weaknesses. Her case studies of the 2010 earthquake in Haiti and Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico suggest that the flow of information, multi-organizational coordination, and humanitarian logistics are challenges that must be overcome in the future. In this sense, emergency managers and humanitarian workers are both the problem and solution to response challenges in major disasters around the world.

Chapter 3, titled “Behaviourally-Informed Early Warning and Anticipatory Action,” was written by Josh Ayers, Oenone Chadburn, and Kazi Amdadul Hoque. These authors investigated warnings – a very common and important function in emergency management. However, instead of concentrating on a typical technocratic notification that focuses on hazards and solely provides information on when emergency operations will commence, their work illustrates the need to better understand the human element of warnings and facilitate anticipatory action. This is vital, since empowering individuals and households with information in advance of a disaster can help relevant stakeholders make better decisions and undertake necessary protective actions.

Using qualitative methods to explore the Start Network, Ayers et al. point out the many benefits of trying new approaches, constantly learning, and striving to improve this common function. In particular, these scholars reveal how the Start Network can improve understanding of warning messages, increase trust, allow vulnerable groups to form and distribute warnings. Their research reiterates that timing, language, culturally sensitive messages, funding, and assistance are some of the many requirements that will improve the efficacy of warnings. The findings of this chapter are a good reminder that our goal is to serve others, and not necessarily the emergency management programs or the humanitarian apparatus alone.

The fourth chapter in the book, “Evacuation Theories and Practices: Case Analysis in Taiwan,” is a logical follow up to the chapter on warnings. Written by Yungnane Yang, Chapter 4 starts off by illustrating the variety of hazards that require evacuation. This includes flooding, mudslides, landslides, wildfires, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and so on.

Yang’s goal is to explore what makes the movement of people to safer locations effective. He reviews the literature as part of his methods, and then explores a number of variables including threats to safety, the behavior of people under crisis situations, and the need for sheltering support. His central argument is that information, resource mobilization, and inter-organizational collaboration are mandatory if evacuations are to be successful.

In order to understand the value of these three components of evacuation, Yang interviewed six community leaders who were involved in evacuations after several disasters in Taiwan. The study revealed that the sharing of timely information, the assistance of police and fire personnel, and collaborative governance for the creation of evacuation policy each had a positive impact of the efficacy of evacuation. Yang therefore asserts that scholars and practitioners should become more familiar with these recommendations going forward.

Chapter 5, titled “Challenges in Preparing for and Responding to Disasters in Taiwan and The U.S.,” is a critical reflection of our existing approach to preparedness and response activities. The author, Ray Hsienho Chang, as a former practitioner and current professor, shares his perspectives about the nature of emergency management in these two countries.

After discussing his role as a fire fighter and experience as an emergency planner, Chang mentioned his desire to acquire further knowledge about emergency management along with his pursuit of advanced education in this area. He then reviewed some of the existing literature, and critically evaluated the phases of emergency management and the needs that must be addressed after disasters.

Chang utilized a comparative analysis of disasters in United States and Taiwan to assess how different nations deal with similar challenges. His prior experience, understanding of prior research, and discussions with other practitioners also led him to share four recommendations to improve emergency management. These included: taking a broader view of preparedness and response, reconsidering what we are preparing for, determining who should be involved, and understanding how to prepare. Overall, Chang’s reflections remind us to rely heavily on planning, training and exercises as well as to ensure scholars and practitioners are learning from each other so the profession can reach its true potential.

Becoming More Proactive

Chapters 6 through 8 invited the readers to consider alternative ways those involved in international disaster management can advance our efforts to deal with disasters. For instance, the chapter by Chris Sheach, “Learning from Smong,” reiterates that policies based on western scientific knowledge may not be the only or appropriate ways to approach disasters. Sheach cautions against colonial attitudes and the persistent reliance on external knowledge (or “techne”) which may have erroneous perspectives about traditional wisdom (“metis”) and its positive impact on practice.

To set up this argument, Sheach traces the development of disaster management theory, and explains how it has been transformed with the introduction of new concepts (such as sustainable development and local and indigenous knowledge) as well as international risk management policy (e.g., the Yokohama Strategy, the Sphere Project, the Hyogo Framework for Action, and the Sendai Framework for Risk Reduction). He then completed a systematic search of the literature to collect data on local and indigenous knowledge.

By reviewing several examples throughout the phases of emergency management, Sheach’s findings suggest that local and indigenous knowledge can be and is highly advantageous in many cases. Besides reducing the loss of lives by recognizing the warning signs of an impending tsunami in the Indian Ocean, traditional mitigation techniques in India, Spain, and several countries in Asia have been shown to reduce seismic threats and limit flooding. Sheach therefore encourages us to consider how traditional approaches to emergency management have been proven to be effective and sustainable. Practitioners in developed countries must keep this in mind when working with unique cultures in other parts of the world.

Chapter 7, “Nations Among Nations: Strengthening Tribal Resilience and Disaster Response,” investigates the complicated policy interactions between Tribal Nations and different levels of neighboring government. This work by Rebecca Morgenstern Brenner, Danielle Mayberry, Kelbie Kennedy, and Marc Anthonisen focuses on the unique issues emergency management leadership in tribal nations face within the broader local, regional and national context, and how disaster response and recovery programs can be strengthened if this information is taken into consideration.

To delve into this question, the authors interviewed emergency management leadership and decision makers within the Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe and Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma. These authors ask how to invest in collaborative planning between Tribal Nations and neighboring governmental leadership to build equitable and adaptive policies for all relevant stakeholders. Their findings suggest improvements in four key areas: funding, jurisdiction, education, and coordination. This chapter provides guidance for any leadership team to collaborate with Tribal Nations for shared planning and how to invest in policy planning to build resilience for all communities, Tribal Nations and their local, state, and national neighbors.

 Chapter 8, by Brenda Murphy, Annette Chretien, Bryce Gunson and Laura Brown, examines how emergency management may strengthen planning for critical infrastructure in rural areas to enhance climate change resilience. These authors note that although urbanization is an increasingly prevalent feature of our modern world, there are still many rural areas with surprisingly sizable populations that can be adversely affected by disasters. Unfortunately, due to decades of urban-centered planning policies and neglect of rural communities, the limited – but complex and expensive critical infrastructure systems in these spaces – are not able to withstand extreme hazards. A greater understanding of the capacities and vulnerabilities of critical infrastructure in rural areas is consequently needed.

After reviewing the literature on these topics, Murphy et al. discuss their methodology, which included interviews with 10 subject matter experts and a survey of nearly 100 community leaders across rural communities in Ontario. The findings from these mixed methods and two case studies reveal some interesting observations about critical infrastructure in rural areas. On the one hand, those communities with greater access to political, social, economic and environmental resources are relatively self-sufficient and better able to cope with hazards and disasters. On the other hand, this chapter illustrates that there are many sizable challenges to be overcome. These include, among other things, old and outdated infrastructure, deficient culverts, sparse cell coverage, sporadic populations, inadequate information, political apathy, inconsistent policy guidance, insufficient building inspectors, limited contractors, and a lack of funding. Thus, clearly not enough is being done to address critical infrastructure in rural areas.

Murphy et. al. therefore advocate for community-led planning to address both emergency management and climate related concerns. They state the importance of metrics to measure resilience, but also admit that what counts as resilience should be self-defined by rural communities. Further, local rural efforts to enhance climate resilience must be supported by provincial and federal government policies that create the political context, financial tools and regulatory framework within which rural communities can flourish and adapt under changing climate regimes.

Addressing the Needs of the Vulnerable

A number of chapters in the book also focused on the importance of taking into account and caring for the most vulnerable among us. The chapter by Zawad Farid, Muhammad Islam, Patrick Roberts and Jeffrey Glick is a great example. Chapter 9 underscores the fact that persons with disabilities are often the population most disproportionately affected by disasters. It is true that additional attention has been given to Disability Inclusive Disaster Risk Reduction (DiDRR) policies, and the United Nations is incorporating these priorities in the Sendai Framework and other sustainable development goals. Nonetheless, is enough being done to protect, safeguard and care for people with disabilities before, during and after disaster situations?

To answer this question, Farid et. al. undertook a comprehensive review of the literature on this subject. Their methods also compared and contrasted DiDRR policy and practice in four countries: India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka. The results indicated some positive trends, but also noted ample opportunities for improvement. For instance, there is increased awareness and advocacy. New laws have been passed and emergency management organizations understand the needs of persons with disabilities more than ever. Conferences have been held on this subject and training has focused on people with disabilities in disasters. Thus, each of these south Asian nations are advancing the inclusion of disability into national disaster management frameworks.

Nevertheless, it is clear that many barriers continue to inhibit full implementation of DiDRR. These include a lack of data, limited policies, insufficient resources, and incomplete capacity building. More must be done in these nations and in others around the world to care for people with disabilities when disasters occur.

Chapter 10, by Christine Raj, Lorraine Schneider, Mikey Latner, Ozzie Baron, and Rita V. Burke also examines vulnerable populations – this time children who may be impacted by disasters. Their contribution, titled “Pediatric Priorities Through the Disaster Management Cycle,” recognizes the irony that we lack information on how to address the needs of children even though they face substantial risks in disaster. These scholars therefore ask, “what are the gaps to pediatric disaster preparedness?”

In their effort to answer this question, a search of multiple databases was completed, and a review of the relevant literature was conducted. The findings of these authors show that children have many needs that are not or cannot be fulfilled in disaster situations. As an example, newborns in the intensive care unit are highly dependent on life sustaining support in hospitals. Sadly, there is a lack of attention given to planning, training, and exercises for these individuals. In addition, there is a lack of preparedness for children at childcare centers, summer camps, evacuation shelters, etc.

The subsequent chapter covers a very closely related issue to the topic highlighted in Chapter 10. In their piece, Michael Prasad and Jennifer Hope Russell assess “Issues for Infant and Toddler Feeding at Disaster Mass Care Sites.” They begin Chapter 11 by noting that breastfeeding provides many benefits to both the mother and child. Unfortunately, they emphasize that this can be disrupted by disasters. More needs to be understood about this problem and a wide variety of efforts should be undertaken to address it.

As part of their study, Prasad and Russell rely on two predominant methods: the story telling of families who have been impacted by disasters and the experiences of the authors themselves as they have promoted advocacy and change. These two types of narratives indicate that there is a lack of lactation support, that disaster assistance is poorly targeted, and that breastmilk substitutes are often unsolicited. In consequence, Prasad and Russell assert that there must be more planning and organizing, the purchase of additional equipment, and further training, etc. They issue an impassioned plea to address the problems associated with infant and toddler feeding both academically and practically.

The final chapter on vulnerable groups, authored by Cihan Aydiner, Iuliia Hoban, Tanya Buhler Corbin, and Logan Gerber-Chavez, explores the displacement of people due to political and military conflicts in Türkiye and Ukraine. This issue is particularly relevant given the recent events in these regions. The chapter identifies a significant gap in understanding how emergency management can address the needs of migrants displaced by violent conflicts.

To complete this study, the authors collected and analyzed policy documents from the United Nations, European Union, German federal agencies, and local officials to gain insights into the emergency management responses for Ukrainian refugees and Turkish asylum seekers in Germany. The results of the study highlight that conflict-induced displacement presents new challenges for both migrants and emergency management professionals. Ukrainian refugees fleeing the 2022 Russian invasion benefited from the Temporary Protection Directive, which allowed them quick access to the labor market and integration opportunities. In contrast, Turkish asylum seekers escaping the post-2016 coup crackdown faced longer waiting times and more complex integration processes due to stringent asylum procedures. Both groups encountered social, political, and economic challenges in their quest for legal status, housing, and employment, exacerbated by language and cultural barriers.

The chapter emphasizes the need for tailored public policies and humanitarian efforts to address displaced populations’ immediate and long-term needs. It also underscores the importance of flexible, inclusive policies that consider asylum seekers’ diverse backgrounds and qualifications. The authors argue for developing consistent, equitable legal frameworks to enhance the effectiveness of international disaster response mechanisms and promote a more humane approach to global migration and asylum policies.

Acknowledging and Addressing Challenges and Opportunities

The chapters in this book also spoke to current challenges that confront us and ongoing opportunities to improve emergency management. Four of the chapters fall under this category. Chapter 13, by Shirley Feldmann-Jensen and Terrence O’Sullivan, is a thorough evaluation of the “Lessons Learned from Key 21^st Century Infectious Disease Outbreaks.” These scholars note that infectious diseases have always existed but assert that the threat is growing due to globalization, urbanization, budget cuts, the deterioration of public health, environmental degradation, drug resistance and many other variables.

Feldmann-Jensen and O’Sullivan provide context for disease outbreaks by discussing the epidemiological triangle (which incorporates the disease agent and its interaction with the host and environment). They also note why diseases are of concern to lesser developed nations and the entire global community. To facilitate their research, these scholars examine 10 notable cases which explore issues related to warning, vulnerability, bioterrorism threats, urban encroachment into biodiverse zones, vector-borne transmission, etc. Their work examines these cases in terms of demographic effects, social behavioral health effects, economic impacts, and management dynamics for containment.

The authors of Chapter 13 restate the importance of numerous measures including: surveillance, identification of pathogen agents, the provision of prophylaxis, the implementation of social distancing/isolation/quarantine, the need for coordination of information, and the value of guidelines for medical providers and the public. Ultimately, this study supports the assertion by the World Health Organization that we must understand why people die so we can change how we are living.

The following study (Chapter 14), by Yi-En “Mike” Tso, also covers issues related to global pandemics. However, rather than concentrating on disease outbreaks alone, Tso’s work describes the expansion of executive power under crisis situations in his chapter titled “The Return of the Administrative State.”

Focusing on COVID-19 and utilizing the comparative method, Tso illustrates how Norway, South Korea, Taiwan and the United States reacted to this worldwide pandemic. He notes that it is logical that executive power would increase during national emergencies. However, Tso wonders if democracy may be weakened in these situations and if rights could therefore be in jeopardy. These are undoubtedly vital inquiries to consider if we are entering a period of increased risk and rising disasters.

The next two chapters examine the opportunities that technology in general and drones in particular provide for emergency management along with the respective challenges. Chapter 15, which was written by Kent Cawley and David McEntire, notes that technology is changing rapidly and that emergency management organizations have encountered both the benefits and dilemmas of these types of advancements. For instance, technology has improved our ability to deal with many functional activities which falls under mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery. Nonetheless, technology has also created difficult decisions in terms of which technology should be purchased. The adoption and application of technology has also presented enormous challenges for those who are already busy with countless responsibilities.

Cawley and McEntire draw from their professional and academic experience as they describe emergency management technology in relation to communications, Emergency Operations Center information systems, Geographic Information Systems, health and medical fields, public safety and security, resource management, social media, surveillance and monitoring, and training and simulation. They reiterate the advantages of modern emergency management technology, but they also express concerns about the expense of such tools and the complexity associated with their use. In addition, the authors of this chapter wonder about the extent to which certain technologies are currently being accessed and utilized in lesser developed nations around the world.

The second piece on technology was written by Hsin-Hsuan Lin and Yi-En (Mike) Tso. Titled “Applications and Prospects of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles in Emergency Situations,” Chapter 16 points out that remotely controlled drones have been adopted as common tools for emergency management in many countries around the world. The authors of this chapter assert that drones are utilized in a variety of ways in disasters (e.g., firefighting, hazard mapping, exercise evaluation, situational awareness, emergency communications, delivery of needed supplies, etc.). Drones may also be used for remote sensing, imagery, surveillance and decision making. With this in mind, Lin and Tso express doubts if legislation and regulations have kept up with concerns about safety, airspace management, and privacy.

In their efforts to explore these issues, Lin and Tso focus heavily on the use of drones in Taiwan but also compare the national experience of this country with many other examples from around the world. Through a focus on the use of drones in damage assessment, these scholars reveal that this technology can provide high-resolution imagery which can provide concrete evidence for leaders and managers who are trying to make decisions about how best to react to disasters that have occurred. Unfortunately, several concerns have been raised about the use of drones. For instance, do drones present safety risks to the people below them? Can the countries that manufacture drones (such as China) use their own technology to spy on others? Will people’s privacy be infringed upon when drones are taking pictures or relaying videos? Lin and Tso underscore the need to design, implement, and enforce rules on drone use to minimizing these fears.

Improving Professionalism in Emergency Management

There were five chapters in the book that dealt with emergency management and the need to improve the profession. In chapter 17, which describes the typical emergency manager, Romeo Lavarias notes that there are many disaster threats which pose a risk to the communities they serve. He comments that new risks are appearing each day. Lavarias consequently mentions that individuals in emergency management positions play a critical role in how successful the organization or jurisdiction will be in disasters. Unfortunately, Lavarias stresses that many emergency managers are nearing retirement, while the graduates of emergency management higher education programs and recently hired employees may not have adequate experience. This is obviously a major problem.

In the attempt to better understand emergency managers and rectify the unfolding workforce situation, Lavarias states that disaster professionals could be called by one of numerous titles. He mentions their responsibility to coordinate with a myriad of actors in challenging disaster situations, and he points out numerous cases where the appointed emergency managers were deemed as being incompetent or ineffective in their positions (even if the system sets up “good people to fail”). Scholars therefore need to study who emergency managers are internationally and public administrators must find ways to backfill these positions going forward. Lavarias’ work therefore provides great context for the remaining chapters in this particular section of the book.

Chapter 18 was written by Kesley Richardson, Joshua McDuffie, and Terry Cooper. Their vital contribution to the book begins with an admission that we are experiencing a “wave of risk.” They state that the complexity of disaster is outpacing the ability of government institutions to address them. Richardson et. al. therefore identify the need for more knowledgeable emergency managers.

Relying on a scoping literature review methodology with the PRIMSA filtering technique (i.e., Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis), the authors in this chapter explored a total of 63 articles. Their findings reveal that there are many gaps in performance and that emergency managers need to be capable of operating in an environment that requires trans-disciplinary solutions. Richardson et al. support further development of knowledge, cultural competency and evaluation procedures along with improvements in the collection of data on emergency management practices around the world.

The subsequent chapter follows up on some of the themes mentioned by Richardson et al. Chapter 19 was written by Christopher Ainsworth and Glenn Jones, and is titled “Credentialing and Professionalization in Emergency, Crisis and Disaster Management.” These authors assert that the performance of emergency managers is leading to public scrutiny.

These two colleagues review a broad swath of literature from both academic and government sources to determine what is being done to improve the emergency management profession in Australia, New Zealand and the United States. They also utilize a method of action research (which concurrently investigates the cause of a problem and identifies possible solutions). The findings of this study suggest that emergency managers must understand the basic concepts and principles of their field. These professionals can advance their knowledge through education and vocational training. And, while it may be difficult to have universal standards, organizations such as IAEM and TIEMS can help establish a baseline of expectations for emergency managers as we work to meet the challenges of the future.

Chapter 20, by Marcelo Ferreira, continues the discussion by Ainsworth and Jones. In his work, “Aligning International Strategy to Standards in Emergency Management,” Ferreira declares that international disaster strategy is striving to reduce risk, enhance preparedness, and improve response and recovery. That being said, Ferreira admits that we must become more proactive and handle disaster impacts more effectively than we have in the past.

To undertake his study, Ferreira critically examines the core concepts or key priorities as contained in key documents (including the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction as well as others by the United States Emergency Management Accreditation Program, and the Security and Resilience Standards of the International Organization for Standardization Technical Committee).

This study concludes that there is confusion regarding core concepts and the exact nature of emergency management. For instance, the United Nations is focusing more on disaster risk reduction. Meanwhile, emergency management officials and humanitarian workers are giving attention to preparedness, response and recovery activities only. These differences suggest we need a comprehensive, interdisciplinary, and integrated approach. Ferreira declares that we must learn from one another and cooperate internationally if we are to make headway in this area.

Chapter 21 by Glenn Jones and Christopher Ainsworth investigates “The Challenges to a Modern Approach to Leadership, Management, Critical Thinking, and Decision Making Within an Emergency Management Environment.” Much like the four preceding chapters, this penultimate examination references the myriad and complex problems facing the emergency management profession. Jones and Ainsworth wonder what can be done to help emergency managers be more effective in their vitally important profession.

As part of their study, Jones and Ainsworth rely heavily on the literature review method. They collected and analyzed scholarly work, emergency management documents, and online courses from a number of nations around the world. These authors identify numerous traits that emergency management leaders must develop and apply, including integrity and trust. They mention the need for management skills, ranging from effective communication with employees to broader community engagement. The final recommendation of this chapter is to enable emergency managers to think critically and to make ethical decisions that will benefit the communities and nations they serve. The primary goal is to help emergency managers reach their potential as they strive to make a difference in the disaster profession.

Overall Observations and Recommendations

As can be seen, there are countless insights provided by the authors in this book and the chapters they have written include numerous suggestions to improve the management of international disasters. While the major implications could be categorized in various ways, this concluding chapter will classify them in terms of research needs, education and training goals, and suggestions for practical application.

 

Advancing the Research Agenda

The authors of this book have advanced our knowledge about unfolding global risks, unique emergency events in diverse places, various emergency management practices around the world, and collective international responses to disasters. The understanding provided by the authors adds to the current comprehension on these and other topics. And yet, there is still a great deal of knowledge that must be created. While numerous recommendations could be made, this chapter will focus on six scholarly activities.

First, the work of the scholars and practitioners in this volume advises that we should advance the body of knowledge about the new risks we are facing and how those are being created due to the unique combination of hazards and vulnerability. For instance, how are climate related hazards interacting with political, economic and social variables to magnify threats to people, places and property? We need to determine how the risk environment is changing so we will not be caught by surprise when the unthinkable happens.

Second, scholars must identify the results of the combination of rising risk and limited capacities as well as what this unsustainable situation means for future policy and practice. As an example, what consequences will occur if we do not anticipate and adequately prepare for the scenarios that will be likely in the future? And, how do these challenges relate to limited budgets, rising debt, and diverse fiscal priorities?

Third, there is an ongoing requirement to understand the context of developing nations. The current situation in what has typically been labeled third world nations may be dramatically different from those in the West. Strategies and plans must take into consideration the status and dynamics of the condition of these nations.

Fourth, further comparative studies should be conducted to determine how different nations deal with disasters and how they structure their emergency management programs. The successes and failures of other countries should be shared far and wide in the academic literature. Each nation can learn from the experiences of others.

Fifth, more studies about the international humanitarian network would be highly beneficial. For instance, have the changes regarding the U.N. cluster approach made a difference for collaboration and mission effectiveness? Also, how can response and recovery work generate increased capacity for mitigation?

Finally, the chapters in this book enumerate multiple issues that deserve additional academic inquiry. This includes learning more about the StartReady program, Yang’s theory of evacuation, and how best to care for those leaving repressed societies or nations embroiled in military conflict. It would also be wise to examine the appropriate role of state in disasters (e.g., the use of emergency powers) and how emergency management organization can effectively acquire and harness all types of technology. By furthering scholarship in these and other subject areas, the foundation can be set to advance emergency management abroad and the collective response to international disasters.

 

Promoting Education and Training

Aside from encouraging further research, nearly the entire collection of chapters in this volume promotes the merit of education and training. The authors in this book argue that students and practitioners alike must be cognizant of the key concepts and principles of emergency management. They assert that both novices and the experienced must be more fully aware of the broader picture of disasters (e.g., the interactions of many variables) so they can anticipate complex impacts and more effectively deal with them.

Keeping this in mind, the authors in the book often assert that educational programs must carefully teach knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) for those preparing for careers so they can make rapid contributions when they enter the workforce. Academic curriculum and training programs should focus more on mitigation and recovery activities (and not just preparedness and response functions alone). Other topics such as ethical considerations, cultural competency, and critical thinking must also be taught with activities that allow application and evaluation.

Besides students and practitioners, other individuals will require education and training. For instance, parents and health workers must learn more about how to assist children in times of disasters. Through additional education and training programs and activities, future and current emergency management and humanitarian works as well as the general public will be in a better position to deal with disasters.

 

Advancing Practical Application

The chapters in this book also provided countless recommendations to improve emergency management in countries around the world and the delivery of humanitarian assistance abroad. While many different suggestions for improvement could be given, it might be best to categorize them into four areas: enhancing the profession, strengthening functional capacity, giving more attention to the most vulnerable, and fostering resilience. Each of these areas will be discussed in turn.

• Enhance the profession. A major implication of this book is that efforts should be made to build the profession of emergency management. This will require more funding for all emergency management organizations, and additional resources for rural areas and tribal governments. Additional personnel must be hired to build the emergency management and international humanitarian community of the future. These individuals need to be qualified and acquire the necessary leadership and management skills of the future. Credentialing programs must be created to ensure those in emergency management are doing all they can advance that work that must be accomplished to deal with disasters.

• Strengthen Functional Capacity. Another closely related proposition of this book is that emergency managers must be capable of implementing the functions that fall under their areas of responsibility. For instance, governments around the world must do a better job collecting and analyzing data related to disasters. Those involved in emergency management must ensure warnings focus on end users and recipients of the messages and that these individuals are enabled to make decisions that will reduce risk and exposure. Communication and coordination must be promoted to ensure all relevant parties in emergency management and international humanitarian assistance are harnessed to address needs. Further attention should be given to the regulation of drones. Extra reflection and evaluation of all types of emergency management performance is needed to make alterations and advancements where needed.

• Give great attention to issues of diversity, equity and inclusion. Emergency management at the national level and humanitarian assistance at the international level should be increasingly geared toward those who are most vulnerable. This includes warning people in the language they can understand, helping people with disabilities safely evacuate, and creating shelters that can care for children and infants. It also necessitates that tribal rights are respected, that emergency managers and nonprofit organizations assist people who are displaced, and that policy values local and indigenous knowledge. Each of these measures will require leaders and managers to have cultural competency.

• Foster Resilience. A fourth recommendation is to do all that is possible to reduce risk and strengthen post-disaster activities. While each nation must determine its own emergency management priorities, there is a global need to focus more on mitigation activities. Hazard and risk assessment, improved land use, stronger engineering techniques, and vulnerability reduction should be prioritized. Giving attention to climate-related disasters, rural communities, and critical infrastructure is also essential. Moreover, emergency managers must give more attention to preparedness before disasters occur. However, recovery must not be an afterthought. In other words, emergency managers and humanitarian workers must be able to put the pieces together quickly after a disaster and find ways to limit vulnerability to future disasters.

A Final Word

This book has now drawn to a close with the important reminders provided in this concluding chapter. However, the management of international disasters is, ironically, still beginning. This discipline and the profession remain in their infancy, and much more work will be needed to make our international emergency management practices more effective going forward. To the extent that scholars and practitioners will heed the lessons of this book and strive for consistent improvement, the frequency and impact of international disasters can be minimized. This chapter therefore concludes with an impassioned call to action.